UPSC History

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Prehistoric Period
Stone Age in India: A Brief Overview

1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)
2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
3. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
4. Conclusion

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Ganas or Sanghas or Republics

Indus valley civilization sites

Explained: History of Suez Canal, its economic importance 🔗
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🔆Satyendra Nath Bose:

✅Born: January 1, 1894, in Calcutta, India.
✅Inspired by teachers like Jagadish Chandra Bose and Prafulla Chandra Roy.
✅Career: Began as a physics lecturer at Calcutta University (1916), later joined Dhaka University (1921).
✅Known for his groundbreaking work in quantum mechanics and statistical physics.

His Work:
✅Planck’s Law and Photon Gas:
🔸Derived Planck’s law using a novel statistical method treating light as a photon gas.
🔸Developed new techniques for counting photon states, forming the basis of Bose-Einstein statistics.
✅Collaboration with Einstein:
Sent his paper on radiation to Albert Einstein, who translated it into German and published it.
🔸Einstein extended Bose’s work to atoms, leading to the theory of Bose-Einstein condensates and the ideal quantum gas.
✅Bosons:
🔸Bose-Einstein statistics apply to particles with integer spins, named bosons (by Paul Dirac) in his honor.
🔸Bosons do not obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
✅Bose-Einstein Condensates (BECs):
🔸Predicted a new state of matter where bosons condense into the lowest quantum state at near absolute zero temperatures.
🔸Experimentally confirmed in 1995 using rubidium and sodium atoms, earning a Nobel Prize for Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and Wolfgang Ketterle in 2001.

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✅1939: The Government of India joined WW II without consulting the elected members of the central legislature or Congress. Hence, Congress ministries resigned.

✅1940: Congress rejected the August offer and launched the Individual Satyagraha.

✅1942: To get the support of Indians in war, the British government sent Cripps mission. Congress rejected the Cripps proposals and launched the Quit India Movement.

🔆 Governor General of India and Events During Regime

▪️Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
✅Abolition of Sati System (1829)
✅Charter Act of 1833

▪️Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
✅First Afghan War (1838-42)

▪️Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848)
✅First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and the Treaty of Lahore (1846).
✅Social reforms like the abolition of female infanticide

▪️Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
✅Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)
✅The annexation of Lower Burma (1852)
✅Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse
✅Wood’s Despatch 1854
✅Laying down of first railway line connecting Bombay and Thane in 1853
✅Establishment of PWD


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🔆Genomic Study to Uncover Population History of South Asia

✅In a ground-breaking move, the Indian government has launched an ambitious scientific study using both ancient and modern genomics to uncover the population history of South Asia.
✅This study aims to resolve long-standing debates and conflicting theories about the origins and migration patterns of ancient Indian communities.
✅The research is being carried out by the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), which functions under the Ministry of Culture, in collaboration with the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, under the Department of Science & Technology.
✅The project, titled “Reconstruction of the Population History of South Asia using Ancient and Modern Genomics,” focuses on DNA extracted from ancient skeletal remains to provide new insights into the region's past.

📍Key Features of the Study:

Scope & Focus:
✅The project involves studying 300 ancient skeletal remains, primarily cranial bones, tooth fragments, and other bone pieces.
✅These remains have been collected from archaeological sites in India and Pakistan, including well-known sites from the Indus Valley Civilization like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (now in Pakistan), as well as locations like Burzahom (J&K), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh), Maski (Karnataka), Ropar (Punjab), and Lothal (Gujarat).
✅These remains were excavated between 1922 and 1958 and are currently in the custody of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

📍Objective:
✅The study aims to reconstruct the origins of ancient Indian communities by extracting and analysing DNA from the remains.
✅It will also shed light on the living conditions, diets, disease prevalence, and migration patterns of ancient people, allowing for a clearer understanding of how populations moved and interacted over time.
✅This research is expected to help answer fundamental questions about the gene pool and environmental adaptation of ancient Indian civilizations.

✅The Aryan Migration Debate:
The project aims to address one of the most significant and controversial questions in Indian history: Did the Aryan migration happen?

✅Aryan Invasion Theory:
Proposed by Western scholars in the 19th century, this theory posits that a group of Aryans, fair-skinned people from Central Asia, migrated to India around 2000-1500 BC, playing a major role in shaping the civilization of the Indian subcontinent.

✅Indigenous Theory:
Many modern Indian archaeologists argue that the Aryans were indigenous to the region and that they lived along the Saraswati River.
✅When the river dried up, they migrated to other parts of India and settled in the Indus Valley

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