Law Exam CLAT Legal LSAT PDF

🔅 Introduction to Indian Judiciary

✅ The judiciary is that branch of the government that interprets the law, settles disputes and administers justice to all citizens. The judiciary is considered the watchdog of democracy, and also the guardian of the Constitution. For democracy to function effectively, it is imperative to have an impartial and independent judiciary.

♻️ Independent Indian Judiciary

✅ It means that the other branches of the government, namely, the executive and the legislature, does not interfere with the judiciary’s functioning.

✅ The judiciary’s decision is respected and not interfered with by the other organs.

✅ It also means that judges can perform their duties without fear or favour.

✅ Independence of the judiciary also does not mean that the judiciary functions arbitrarily and without any accountability. It is accountable to the Constitution of the country.

♻️ How Indian Judiciary is granted its independence?

✅ The Constitution provides for a number of provisions that ensure that the independence of the judiciary is maintained and protected.

✅ India has a single integrated judicial system. The judiciary in India has a pyramidal structure with the Supreme Court (SC) at the top. High Courts are below the SC, and below them are the district and subordinate courts. The lower courts function under the direct superintendence of the higher courts.

🌅 The diagram below the article gives the structure and organisation of the judicial system in the country.


✅ There are also two branches of the legal system, which are:

🔸 Criminal Law: These deal with the committing of a crime by any citizen/entity. A criminal case starts when the local police file a crime report. The court finally decides on the matter.

🔸 Civil Law: These deal with disputes over the violation of the Fundamental Rights of a citizen.

✅ Supreme Court has three types of jurisdictions. They are original, appellate and advisory.

📖 Articles Related to Supreme Court at a Glance 📖

➨ Article 124
Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court

➨ Article 125
Salaries, etc.,of Judges

➨ Article 126
Appointment of acting Chief Justice

➨ Article 127
Appointment of ad hoc Judges

➨ Article 128
Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 129
Supreme Court to be a court of record

➨ Article 130
Seat of Supreme Court

➨ Article 131
Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 131A
Exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in regard to questions as to constitutional validity of Central Laws (Repealed)

➨ Article 132
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases

➨ Article133
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to civil matters

➨ Article 134
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters

➨ 13. Article 134A
Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court

➨ Article 135
Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 136
Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 137
Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 138
Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 139
Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs

➨ Article 139A
Transfer of certain cases

➨ Article 140
Ancillary powers of Supreme Court

➨ Article 141
Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts

➨ Article 142
Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.

➨ Article 143
Power of President to consult Supreme Court

➨ Article 144
Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 144A
Special provisions as to the disposal of questions relating to the constitutional validity of laws (Repealed)

➨ Article 145
Rules of court, etc.

➨ Article 146
Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 147
Interpretation

⚖ chief  Justice

🔶Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court – Justice Manmohan
🔶Chief Justice of Meghalaya High Court – Justice Indra Prasanna Mukerji
🔶Chief Justice of the Himachal Pradesh High Court – Justice Rajiv Shakdher
🔶Chief Justice of the Madhya Pradesh High Court – Justice Suresh Kait
🔶Chief Justice of the Kerala High Court – Justice Nitin Madhukar Jamdar
🔶Chief Justice of the Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh High Court – Justice Tashi Rabstan
🔶Chief Justice of Madras High Court – Justice Shriram Kalpathi Rajendran
🔶Chief Justice Jharkhand High Court – Justice M.S. Ramachandra Rao

 

🟢 Conventions and Protocols related to various environmental and humanitarian issues:

1. Ramsar Convention - Wetlands
2. Bonn Convention - Migratory birds
3. Vienna Convention - Ozone layer
   ▪️ Montreal Protocol - Ozone layer
4. Minamata Convention - Mercury
5. Geneva Protocol - Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare
6. Stockholm Convention - Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP)
7. Rotterdam Convention - Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides
8. Basel Convention - Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal

✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 14.11.2024


1. ALIENATE (NOUN): (पृथक करना): estrange 
Synonyms: turn away, set apart 
Antonyms: unite 
Example Sentence: We live in an urban environment which alienates its own inhabitants. 


2. DASTARDLY (ADJECTIVE): (नीचतापूर्ण): wicked 
Synonyms: evil, iniquitous 
Antonyms: noble 
Example Sentence: While the town is sleeping, the mafia is out doing dastardly deeds. 


3. EGREGIOUS (ADJECTIVE): (भीषण): shocking 
Synonyms: appalling, horrific 
Antonyms: marvellous 
Example Sentence: Copyright faces egregious abuses. 


4. CALLOUS (ADJECTIVE): (निर्मम): heartless 
Synonyms: unfeeling uncaring 
Antonyms: kind 
Example Sentence: His callous comments about the murder made me shiver. 


5. AMBIGUITY (NOUN): (अस्पष्टता): ambivalence 
Synonyms: equivocation, obscurity 
Antonyms: transparency 
Example Sentence: We can detect no ambiguity in this section of the Act. 


6. CONSOLIDATE (VERB): (मजबूत करना): strengthen 
Synonyms: secure, stabilize 
Antonyms: weaken 
Example Sentence: The company consolidated its position in the international market. 


7. DESPISE (VERB): (घृणा करना): detest 
Synonyms: hate, loathe 
Antonyms: like 
Example Sentence: He despised himself for being selfish. 


8. UNRAVEL (VERB): (सुलझाना): solve 
Synonyms: resolve, work out 
Antonyms: complicate 
Example Sentence: They were attempting to unravel the cause of death. 


9. PATCHY (ADJECTIVE): (असम): uneven 
Synonyms: bitty, varying 
Antonyms: uniform 
Example Sentence: There was patchy fog in the sky. 


10. DISMANTLE (VERB): (विघटित करना): take apart 
Synonyms: pull apart, deconstruct 
Antonyms: assemble 
Example Sentence: The engines were dismantled and the bits piled into a heap. 

In the following passage, some words have been deleted. Read the passage carefully and select the most appropriate option to fill in each blank

The British king, Charles I, had (1) ______ a very difficult financial situation from his father. His period saw a very high rate of inflation. He wanted to (2) ______ money. Therefore, he (3) ______ creating the title of Baronet and selling it to (4) ______ candidates. However, his decision was (5) ______ by the British parliament.

✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 11.11.2024


1. STRICTURE (NOUN): (परिसीमन): constraint 
Synonyms: restriction, limitation 
Antonyms: freedom 
Example Sentence: The strictures imposed by the British Board of Film Censors. 


2. DISBURSE (VERB): (चुकाना): pay out 
Synonyms: lay out, spend 
Antonyms: claim 
Example Sentence:$67 million of the pledged aid had already been disbursed. 


3. ANIMOSITY (NOUN): (बैर): antipathy 
Synonyms: hostility, friction 
Antonyms: goodwill 
Example Sentence: He no longer felt any animosity towards her. 


4. ARTICULATE (VERB): (साफ़ साफ़ बोलना): express 
Synonyms: voice, give voice to 
Antonyms: bottle up 
Example Sentence:They were unable to articulate their emotions. 


5. INFANTILE (ADJECTIVE): (बचकाना): childish 
Synonyms: babyish, immature 
Antonyms: mature 
Example Sentence:Everyone is fed up of his infantile jokes. 


6. DEMARCATE (VERB): (हदबंदी करना): separate 
Synonyms: divide, delimit 
Antonyms: join 
Example Sentence:Art was being demarcated from the more objective science. 


7. IMPUGN (VERB): (बहस करना): challenge 
Synonyms: question, dispute 
Antonyms: support 
Example Sentence:The father does not impugn her capacity as a good mother. 


8. OSTENSIBLY (ADVERB): (जाहिरा तौर पर): apparently 
Synonyms: seemingly, on the face of it 
Antonyms: genuinely 
Example Sentence: The party secretary resigned, ostensibly from ill health. 


9. INFURIATE (VERB): (क्रुद्ध करना): enrage 
Synonyms: incense, anger 
Antonyms: please 
Example Sentence: I was infuriated by your article. 


10. DEFER (VERB): (झुक जाना): yield 
Synonyms: submit, give way 
Antonyms: stand up to 
Example Sentence:I deferred to his supreme efficiency. 

✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 09.11.2024


1. RATIFY (VERB): (पुष्टि करना): confirm 
Synonyms: approve, sanction 
Antonyms: reject 
Example Sentence:Both countries were due to ratify the treaty by the end of the year. 


2. NEFARIOUS (ADJECTIVE): (कुटिल): wicked 
Synonyms: evil, sinful 
Antonyms: good 
Example Sentence: The nefarious activities of the organized-crime syndicates. 


3. HEGEMONY (NOUN): (नायकत्व): leadership 
Synonyms: dominance, dominion 
Antonyms: self-government 
Example Sentence: Germany was united under Prussian hegemony after 1871. 


4. ENORMITY (NOUN): (दुष्टता): wickedness 
Synonyms: baseness, blackness 
Antonyms: goodness 
Example Sentence: The enormities of war are way too high as expected. 


5. APEX (NOUN): (चरम सीमा): climax 
Synonyms: culmination, apotheosis 
Antonyms: nadir 
Example Sentence:The apex of his career was in 1966 when he hosted aloft the World Cup. 


6. ABOLITION (NOUN): (उन्मूलन): scrapping 
Synonyms: ending, stopping 
Antonyms: retention 
Example Sentence: He was responsible for the abolition of the death penalty. 


7. CONCOMITANT (ADJECTIVE): (संगत करने वाला): attendant 
Synonyms: accompanying, associated 
Antonyms: unrelated 
Example Sentence: She loved travel, with all its concomitant worries. 


8. INTRANSIGENT (ADJECTIVE): (सैद्धांतिक): uncompromising 
Synonyms: inflexible, unbending 
Antonyms: compliant 
Example Sentence: Her father had tried persuasion, but she was intransigent. 


9. ORATORICAL (ADJECTIVE): (भाषण -संबंधी): rhetorical 
Synonyms: grandiloquent, magniloquent 
Antonyms: plain-spoken 
Example Sentence: He has plenty oratorical skills. 


10. SHUN (VERB): (किनारा करना): avoid 
Synonyms: evade eschew 
Antonyms: accept 
Example Sentence: He shunned fashionable society. 

🌟 Important Points

1. Article 356: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar stated that Article 356 (the provision for President's Rule in states) should be used as a last resort and as a means of final recourse.

2. Passing of the Constitution: The Indian Constitution was passed on November 26, 1949, and it came into effect on January 26, 1950.

3. Amendment with the Words 'Socialist,' 'Secular,' and 'Integrity': The words 'Socialist,' 'Secular,' and 'Integrity' were added to the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment.

4. Property Rights Changed to Legal Rights: The right to property was changed from a fundamental right to a legal right through the 44th Amendment.

5. Protection of Personal Liberties: To ensure the protection of personal liberties, citizens can approach the Supreme Court and High Courts.

6. Meaning of Writs: The literal meaning of the term 'Writ' (Quo-Warranto Writ) is "by what authority."

7. Removal of Judges: Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts can be removed by passing impeachment proceedings in Parliament.

8. Mandatory Signature on Finance Bill: The President is required to give assent without reconsideration to the Finance Bill.

9. Vice President's Role: The Vice President serves as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

10. Extension of Lok Sabha's Term: The power to extend the term of the Lok Sabha beyond five years is vested in Parliament only during a national emergency.

11. Three Major All India Services: The three major All India Services are the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), and the Indian Police Service (IPS).

12. Chairman of the States' Reorganization Commission: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the Chairman of the States' Reorganization Commission, which was formed by the Constitution Assembly.

13. Adoption of the National Flag: The Constituent Assembly adopted the National Flag on July 22, 1947.

14. Number of Articles and Schedules in the Constitution on November 26, 1950: On November 26, 1950, the initial Indian Constitution had 395 Articles and 8 Schedules.

15. Right to Equality: The right to equality is enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution.

16. Establishment of the Finance Commission: The provision for the establishment of the Finance Commission is mentioned in Article 280 of the Constitution.

🔹 Fillers Base MCQs 🔹
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✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 06.11.2024


1. PERTINENT (ADJECTIVE): (प्रासंगिक): relevant
Synonyms: to the point apposite
Antonyms: irrelevant
Example Sentence:She asked me a lot of very pertinent questions.


2. EMBELLISH (VERB): (अधिक रोचक बनाना): elaborate
Synonyms: embroider, exaggerate
Antonyms: simplify
Example Sentence:Followers often embellish stories about their heroes.


3. JUDICIAL (ADJECTIVE): (न्यायिक): legal
Synonyms: judiciary, juridical
Antonyms: ilegal
Example Sentence:There would be a judicial inquiry into the allegations.


4. FACTION (NOUN): (अंदरूनी कलह): infighting
Synonyms: dissension, dissent
Antonyms: harmony
Example Sentence:The army faction strengthened day by day.


5. DESPERATE (ADJECTIVE): (निराशाजनक): despairing
Synonyms: hopeless, anguished
Antonyms: cheerful
Example Sentence:As the supply of food ran out, people became desperate.


6. DEFIANCE (NOUN): (अवज्ञा): resistance
Synonyms: opposition, confrontation
Antonyms: submission
Example Sentence:Despite her defiance, her voice shook.


7. TEMERITY (NOUN): (धृष्टता): audacity
Synonyms: boldness, nerve
Antonyms: shyness
Example Sentence:No one had the temerity to question his conclusions.


8. SETBACK (NOUN): (स्र्कावट): problem
Synonyms: difficulty, issue
Antonyms: breakthrough
Example Sentence:The violent attack was a serious setback for the peace process.


9. DISSEMINATION (NOUN): (प्रसार): spreading
Synonyms: circulation distribution
Antonyms: suppressing
Example Sentence:The dissemination of public information was essential.


10. DRAB (ADJECTIVE): (बेरंग): colourless
Synonyms: grey, dull
Antonyms: bright
Example Sentence:The landscape was drab and grey. 

✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 05.11.2024


1. LUCRATIVE(ADJECTIVE): (लाभप्रद): profitable 
Synonyms: profit-making, gainful 
Antonyms: unprofitable 
Example Sentence:She has a lucrative career as a stand-up comedian. 


2. FIASCO (NOUN): (असफलता): success 
Synonyms: disaster, catastrophe 
Antonyms: failure 
Example Sentence: Her plans turned into a fiasco. 


3. CLAMOUR (NOUN): (कोलाहल): din 
Synonyms: racket, uproar 
Antonyms: silence 
Example Sentence: The questions rose to a clamour. 


4. UNRELENTING (ADJECTIVE): (निरंतर): continual 
Synonyms: constant, continuous 
Antonyms: intermittent 
Example Sentence: His unrelenting efforts led to his success. 


5. TRANQUILLITY (NOUN): (शांति): peace 
Synonyms: repose, calm 
Antonyms: commotion 
Example Sentence: The tweeting of birds gives tranquility. 


6. INEVITABLE (ADJECTIVE): (अपरिहार्य): unavoidable 
Synonyms: inescapable, inexorable 
Antonyms: avoidable 
Example Sentence: War was inevitable. 


7. JEOPARDIZE (VERB): (जोखिम में डालना): threaten 
Synonyms: endanger, imperil 
Antonyms: safegaurd 
Example Sentence:He jeopardized his as as well as my life by jumping in the lake. 


8. COGNIZANT (ADJECTIVE): (जानकार): aware 
Synonyms: conscious apprised 
Antonyms: unaware 
Example Sentence:Statesmen must be cognizant of the political vicinity within which they work. 


9. PERVASIVE (ADJECTIVE): (व्यापक): prevalent 
Synonyms: penetrating, pervading 
Antonyms: uncommon 
Example Sentence: Racism is pervasive and entrenched in our society. 


10. COMPREHENSIVE (ADJECTIVE): (व्यापक): comprehensive 
Synonyms: thorough, complete 
Antonyms: small 
Example Sentence:My friend has an extensive collection of silver. 

✅ Daily The Hindu Vocabulary | 04.11.2024


1. DISCRETIONARY (ADJECTIVE): (विवेकाधीन): optional 
Synonyms: non-compulsory, voluntary 
Antonyms: compulsory 
Example Sentence: There has been an increase in year-end discretionary bonuses. 


2. ALOOF (ADJECTIVE): (पृथक): distant 
Synonyms: detached unresponsive 
Antonyms: familiar 
Example Sentence: They were courteous but faintly aloof. 


3. GRATIFICATION (NOUN): (संतुष्टि): satisfaction 
Synonyms: fulfilment, indulgence 
Antonyms: dissatisfaction 
Example Sentence: My son's success was a great gratification. 


4. PRODIGIOUS (ADJECTIVE): (बहुत बड़ा): enormous 
Synonyms: huge colossal 
Antonyms: small 
Example Sentence: The stove consumed a prodigious amount of fuel. 


5. STIGMATIZE (VERB): (गाली देना): condemn 
Synonyms: denounce, brand 
Antonyms: eulogize 
Example Sentence: He was stigmatized in fashion by the people. 


6. ABROGATE (VERB): (अभिनिषेध करना): repudiate 
Synonyms: revoke, repeal 
Antonyms: institute 
Example Sentence: The ministry proposed to abrogate the electoral law of 1850. 


7. INSULAR (ADJECTIVE): (संकुचित विचार का): narrow-minded 
Synonyms: limited, blinkered 
Antonyms: broad-minded 
Example Sentence: They are a group of stubbornly insular farming people. 


8. DISPENSATION (NOUN): (छूट): exemption 
Synonyms: immunity, exception 
Antonyms: restriction 
Example Sentence: Although she was too young, she was given special dispensation to sing. 


9. DE FACTO (ADJECTIVE): (वास्तव में): in practice 
Synonyms: in effect, in fact 
Antonyms: alleged
Example Sentence: The country was de facto divided between two states. 


10. FRAUGHT (ADJECTIVE): (व्यग्र): anxious 
Synonyms: worried, upset 
Antonyms: calm 
Example Sentence: There was a fraught silence. 

From the various judgements, the following have emerged as ‘basic features’ of the Constitution or elements of the ‘basic structure’ of the constitution :-

1. Supremacy of the Constitution

2. Sovereign, democratic and republican nature of the Indian polity

3. Secular character of the Constitution

4. Separation of powers between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary

5. Federal character of the Constitution

6. Unity and integrity of the nation

7. Welfare state (socio-economic justice)

8. Judicial review

9. Freedom and dignity of the individual

10. Parliamentary system

11. Rule of law

12. Harmony and balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

13. Principle of equality

14. Free and fair elections

15. Independence of Judiciary

16. Limited power of Parliament to amend the Constitution

17. Effective access to justice

18. Principles (or essence) underlying fundamental rights

19. Powers of SC under Articles 32, 136, 141 and 142

20. Powers of HC under Articles 226 and 227

Anonymity Vs. Right to Information

The Supreme Court recently questioned the anonymity of Electoral Bonds and Voters' Right to Information.

Recently, a batch of petitions challenged the constitutionality of the 2018 electoral bond scheme.

✨So from EXAM POV, this brings back the limelight on the topic of Electoral Bonds!

Let's go through it quickly in this post.

So, What are Electoral Bonds?

🔹Money instruments like promissory notes from SBI 🏦
🔹They serve as a means for individuals and entities to make donations to registered political parties while maintaining donor anonymity.
🔹No donor name, just a unique code for anonymity
🔹Payable to the bearer (i.e, the political party) on demand and is interest-free
🔹Can be bought by Indian citizens & entities established in India
🔹Denominations: Rs 1K, Rs 10,000, Rs 1 lakh, Rs 10 lakh, and Rs 1 crore 💵

Eligibility:
Parties registered under Section 29A of the RPA, 1951, with at least 1% votes in recent Lok Sabha/State elections 📊

Validity:
Valid for 15 calendar days from the date of issue ⏳

Past Problems:
▫️ There was a predominance of cash donations earlier
▫️ Anonymity & unaccounted money issues

The Bonds' Goal:
▫️ Reduce cash donations & increase transparency 🌐
▫️ Increase transactions through the formal route

Benefits:

🔸Discouragement of cash transactions.
🔸Ensure that political parties receive donations through formal banking channels, which can be audited by government authorities.
🔸This reduces the scope for black money and corruption in political financing.
🔸It protects the privacy and safety of the donor.

❗ Criticisms:

♦️ Hampers transparency goal
♦️ Encourages unlimited & anonymous donations
♦️ Unfair advantage to the ruling party.
♦️ Electoral bonds are sold by the SBI only, which is a state-owned bank.
♦️ The government can access the information of the buyers of electoral bonds, and monitor their political preferences.
♦️ Can lead to intimidation, coercion, or favouritism of the donors by the government.
♦️ Introduced as a 'Money bill' to avoid Rajya Sabha scrutiny
♦️ ECI concerns: Reduces transparency, risks shell companies 🚨
♦️ RBI warns: Potential for black money, forgery, & money laundering ⚠️
♦️ The government can also manipulate the timing and frequency of issuing electoral bonds to benefit its own party.

In Short:

Electoral bonds, while an upgrade, still lack complete transparency due to anonymous donations.

The Debate continues on whether or not voters have the Right to Know Who Funds their Potential Parliamentarians! 💬

Deepfake Technology

1. Definition:
- Deepfake is a portmanteau of "deep learning" and "fake."
- It refers to the use of deep learning techniques, especially generative neural networks, to create synthetic content that appears realistic.

2. Technology:
- Deepfake technology often relies on generative adversarial networks (GANs), a type of deep neural network architecture.
- GANs consist of a generator that produces synthetic content and a discriminator that evaluates how well the generated content matches real data.

3. Application:
- Primarily used to create realistic but entirely fake videos or images.
- Can involve swapping faces, altering facial expressions, and manipulating audio to make it seem like a person is saying or doing something they never did.

4. Concerns:
- Deepfakes raise significant concerns about misinformation and the potential for malicious use.
- Can be exploited to create convincing fake news, impersonate individuals, or manipulate public perception.

5. Misuse Potential:
- Threatens the credibility of audio and video evidence in various contexts, such as legal proceedings and news reporting.
- Political figures, celebrities, and ordinary individuals can be targets for deepfake manipulation.

6. Detection Challenges:
- Deepfakes are challenging to detect, as they can closely resemble authentic content.
- Researchers and tech companies are developing tools and algorithms for deepfake detection.

7. Ethical Implications:
- Raises ethical questions about the responsible use of technology and the potential harm caused by malicious deepfake creation.
- Prompts discussions on the need for regulations and safeguards against misuse.

8. Media and Entertainment:
- Deepfake technology has applications in the entertainment industry, allowing for realistic CGI and digital effects.
- Enables the creation of digital doubles for actors and characters.

9. Research and Development:
- Ongoing efforts to advance deepfake technology for positive applications, such as video editing, special effects, and virtual reality.

10. Public Awareness:
- Increasing awareness about the existence and potential impact of deepfake technology.
- Emphasizes the importance of media literacy and critical thinking to discern authentic content from manipulated material.

⭐️IMPORTANT ARTICLES ⭐️

🔴Part XIV, PUBLIC SERVICES(308 to 323)

312. All-India services
315. PSC for Union & States
320. Functions of PSC
321. Power to extend functions of PSC

🔵Part XIVA,TRIBUNALS (323A& B)

323A. Administrative tribunals
323B. Tribunals for other matters

🟢Part XV, ELECTIONS (324 to 329)
324. Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission

326. Elections to the House of the people(LS) and to the legislative assemblies(LA) of states to be on the basis of Adult suffrage

329. Bar to Interference by Courts in Electoral matters

🟣Part XVI, SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES (330 to 342)
LS -- Lok Sabha
LA--Legislative Assemblies

330. Reservation for SC & ST in ( LS )
331. Represent Anglo-Indian in ( LS )
332. Reservation for SC & ST in (LA)
333. Represent Anglo-Indian in (LA)

338. National Commission for SC
338A. National Commission for ST

340. Appointment of a commission to investigate conditions of BC
341-- SC 342 -- ST

🟡Part XVII, OFFICIAL LANGUAGE(343 to 351)

343. Official language of the Union
345. Official languages of states
346. Official lang for communication b/w one state and another
348. Language to be used in SC & HC

350A. Facilities for mother-tongue at primary stage
350B. Special officer for linguistic minorities
351.Development of Hindi language

🔴Part XVIII, EMERGENCY PROVISIONS (352 to 360)

352.National Emergency
355. Duty of the Union to protect states in Internal & External Emergencies
356. States Emergency (President rule)
359. Suspension of the enforcement of fundamental rights in emergencies
360. Financial Emergency

🔵Part XIX, MISCELLANEOUS (361 to 367)

361. Protection of President and Governors and Rajpramukhs

363. Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties & agreements

364. Special provisions as to major ports and aerodromes

365. Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to directions given by the Union (president’s rule)

🟢Part XX, AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION (Art 368)

368. Power of Parliament to Amend the Constitution

🟠 Part XXI, TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS (369 to 392)

370. Temporary provisions to JK ( Abolished on Aug 5 2019)

SPECIAL PROVISIONS TO STATES :
371. Maharashtra and Gujarat
371A. Nagaland
371B. Assam
371C. Manipur
371D. Andhra Pradesh
371F. Sikkim
371G. Mizoram
371H. Arunachal Pradesh
371-I. Goa
371-J. Karnataka

372. Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation
372A. Power of the president to adapt laws

🟡Part XXII, ( 393 to 395 )

393. Short title
394. Commencement
394A. Authoritative text in Hindi language

🖲️🖲️Fundamental Rights🖲️🖲️

🔊Right to Equality

📶Article 14 :- Equality before law and equal protection of law

📶Article 15 :- Prohibition of discrimination on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

📶Article 16 :- Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment

📶Article 17 :- End of untouchability

📶Article 18 :- Abolition of titles, Military and academic distinctions are, however, exempted

📸Right to Freedom

🔊Article 19 :- It guarantees the citizens of India the following six fundamentals freedoms:-

⏸️Freedom of Speech and Expression

⏸️Freedom of Assembly

⏸️Freedom of form Associations

⏸️Freedom of Movement

⏸️Freedom of Residence and Settlement

⏸️Freedom of Profession, Occupation, Trade and Business

🔊Article 20 :- Protection in respect of conviction for offences

🔊Article 21 :- Protection of life and personal liberty

🔊Article 22 :- Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases

📸Right Against Exploitation

📹Article 23 :- Traffic in human beings prohibited

📹Article 24 :- No child below the age of 14 can be employed

🔊Right to freedom of Religion

⏫Article 25 :- Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion

⏫Article 26 :- Freedom to manage religious affairs

⏫Article 27 :- Prohibits taxes on religious grounds

⏫Article 28 :- Freedom as to attendance at religious ceremonies in certain educational institutions.

🔊Cultural and Educational Rights

⚠️Article 29 :- Protection of interests of minorities

⚠️Article 30 :- Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions

⚠️Article 31 :- Omitted by the 44th Amendment Act

🔊Right to Constitutional Remedies

📸Article 32 :- The right to move the Supreme Court in case of their violation (called Soul and heart of the Constitution by BR Ambedkar)

Forms of Writ check

⏸️Habeas Corpus :- Equality before law and equal protection of law

🔊Right to Property

⏯️Article 31:- Provided that "no person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property has been taken for public purposes

❌At present, there are only SIX fundamental rights..

The right to property was also one of the fundamental rights, according to the original Constitution. This right was omitted by the 44th Amendment Act in December, 1978. It is now only a legal right under Article 300-A in Part-XII of the Constitution. 

⚖ chief  Justice

🔶Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court – Justice Manmohan
🔶Chief Justice of Meghalaya High Court – Justice Indra Prasanna Mukerji
🔶Chief Justice of the Himachal Pradesh High Court – Justice Rajiv Shakdher
🔶Chief Justice of the Madhya Pradesh High Court – Justice Suresh Kait
🔶Chief Justice of the Kerala High Court – Justice Nitin Madhukar Jamdar
🔶Chief Justice of the Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh High Court – Justice Tashi Rabstan
🔶Chief Justice of Madras High Court – Justice Shriram Kalpathi Rajendran
🔶Chief Justice Jharkhand High Court – Justice M.S. Ramachandra Rao

🔰 Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 🔰

The Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 extended to the whole of India and regulated Indian labour law so far as that concerns trade unions as well as Individual workman employed in any Industry within the territory of Indian mainland. Enacted on 11 March 1947 and It came into force 1 April 1947. It was replaced by the Industrial Relations Code, 2020.

🔹 Objectives
An act to make provision for the investigation and settlement of industrial disputes, and for certain other purposes. The objective of the Industrial Disputes Act is to secure industrial peace and harmony by providing mechanism and procedure for the investigation and settlement of industrial disputes by conciliation, arbitration and adjudication which is provided under the statute. The main and ultimate objective of this act is "Maintenance of Peaceful work culture in the Industry in India" which is clearly provided under the Statement of Objects & Reasons of the statute.

The laws apply only to the organised sector. Chapter V talks about the most important and often in news topic of 'Strikes and Lockouts'. It talks about the Regulation of strikes and lockouts and the proper procedure which is to be followed to make it a Legal instrument of 'Economic Coercion' either by the Employer or by the Workmen. Chapter V-B, introduced by an amendment in 1976, requires firms employing 300 or more workers to obtain government permission for layoffs, retrenchments and closures. A further amendment in 1982 (which took effect in 1984) expanded its ambit by reducing the threshold to 100 workers.

The Act also lays down:
➖The provision for payment of compensation to the workman on account of closure or lay off or retrenchment.
➖The procedure for prior permission of appropriate Government for laying off or retrenching the workers or closing down industrial establishments
➖Unfair labour practices on part of an employer or a trade union or workers.


🔹 Applicability
The Industrial Disputes Act extends to whole of India and applies to every Industry and its various industrial establishment carrying on any business, trade, manufacture or distribution of goods and services irrespective of the number of workmen employed there in.

Every person employed in an establishment for hire or reward including contract labour, apprentices and part-time employees to do any manual, clerical, skilled, unskilled, technical, operational or supervisory work, is covered by the Act.

This Act though does not apply to persons mainly in managerial or administrative capacity, persons engaged in a supervisory capacity and drawing > 10,000 p.m or executing managerial functions and persons subject to Army Act, Air Force and Navy Act or those in police service or officer or employee of a prison.

➨ Applicability of Parent Act
◾️Trades Dispute Act

➨ Related Sections Of The Act
◾️Section 1 : Short title, and commencement

➨ Important Definitions
◾️Section 2A : Appropriate Government

➨ Any industry carried on by or under the authority of the Central Govt, or by a railway company or a Dock Labour Board, or the Industrial Finance Corporation of India Ltd, or the ESIC, or the board of trustees of the Coal Mines PF, or FCI, or LIC or in relation to any other industrial dispute, the state Government.
◾️Section 2J : Industry
The definition of Industry under the Act is taken from the Supreme Court's judgment in Bangalore water Supply and Sewerage Board v. A. Rajappa.


🔹 Triple Test formulae The organization is Prima Facie an industry if it is

1. A systematic activity
2. Organized by co-operation between an employer and an employee
3. for the production of goods and services calculated to satisfy human wants and wishes. (not spiritual or pious in nature but inclusive of material things or services geared to seek celestial bliss)

Articles related to women

Art 14 - Equality before law
Art 15 (1) - No discrimination on the basis of sex
Art 15 (3) - State to make special provision for women
Art 16 - Equality of opportunity for all in gov employment
Art 39 (a) - Men or women shall equally have the right to adequate means of livelihood
Art 39 (d) - Equal pay for equal work for both men and women
Art 42 -  Just and humane working conditions and maternity relief
Art 51A (e) - Every citizen to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women
Art 243 (D) - 1/3 of the total number of offices of Chairpersons in the Panchayats at each level shall be reserved for women
Art 243 (T) - 1/3 of the total number of seats filled by direct elections in every Municipality shall be reserved for women

Articles related to Children

-Art 14: Right to equality
-Art 15: Right against discrimination
-Art 21: Right to personal liberty and due process of law
-Art 21 A: Right to free and compulsory elementary education for all children in the 6-14 year age group
-Art 23: Right to being protected from being trafficked and forced into bonded labour
-Art 24: Right to be protected from any hazardous employment till the age of 14 years
-Art 29: Right of minorities for protection of their interests
-Art 39 (e): Children are not abused
-Art 39 (f): Children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner
-Art 45: Provide early childhood care and education for children below the age of six years
-Art 46: Right of weaker sections of the people to be protected from social injustice and all forms of exploitation
-Art 47: Right to nutrition and standard of living and improved public health
-Art 51 A: Provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

📖 Articles Related to Supreme Court at a Glance 📖

➨ Article 124
Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court

➨ Article 125
Salaries, etc.,of Judges

➨ Article 126
Appointment of acting Chief Justice

➨ Article 127
Appointment of ad hoc Judges

➨ Article 128
Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 129
Supreme Court to be a court of record

➨ Article 130
Seat of Supreme Court

➨ Article 131
Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 131A
Exclusive jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in regard to questions as to constitutional validity of Central Laws (Repealed)

➨ Article 132
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases

➨ Article133
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to civil matters

➨ Article 134
Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters

➨ 13. Article 134A
Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court

➨ Article 135
Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 136
Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 137
Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court

➨ Article 138
Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 139
Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs

➨ Article 139A
Transfer of certain cases

➨ Article 140
Ancillary powers of Supreme Court

➨ Article 141
Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts

➨ Article 142
Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.

➨ Article 143
Power of President to consult Supreme Court

➨ Article 144
Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 144A
Special provisions as to the disposal of questions relating to the constitutional validity of laws (Repealed)

➨ Article 145
Rules of court, etc.

➨ Article 146
Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court

➨ Article 147
Interpretation

✅ Questions based on important Articles

Q1. Article related to whom?
Ans. union name and territory

Q2. What is Article 2 related to?
Ans. Formation / Admission of new states

Q3. Article 12-35 is related to?
Ans. fundamental rights

Q4. What is Article 14 related to?
Ans. equality before law

Q5. What is Article 17 related to?
Ans. end of untouchability

Q6. Compliance. To whom is 19 (1) (a) related?
Ans. freedom of press

Q7. What is Article 21 related to?
Ans. life and personal liberty

Q8. What is Article 23 related to?
Ans. child labor prohibition

Q9. Article 36-51 is related to?
Ans. directive principles of state policy

Q10. What is Article 40 related to?
Ans. Organization of Village Panchayats

Q_11. What is Article 45 related to?
Ans. free education for children

Q12. What is Article 51 (a) related to?
Ans. fundamental duty

Q13. What is Article 52 related to?
Ans. President of India

Q14. What is Article 54 related to?
Ans. presidential election

Q.15. What is Article 61 related to? Ans. impeachment of the president

Q 16. Article 72 is related to?
Ans. President's pardoning power

Q_17. What is Article 74 related to?
Ans. prime minister of India

Q.18. What is Article 79 related to?
Ans. constitution of parliament

Q_19. Article 80/81 is related to?
Ans. Constitution of State / Lok Sabha

Q.20. What is Article 85 related to?
Ans. dissolution of the Lok Sabha

Q_21. What is Article 108 related to?
Ans. joint session of parliament

Q_22. What is Article 244 related to? Ans. Scheduled and Tribal Areas

Q_23. What is Article 280 related to?
Ans. finance commission

Q_24. What is Article 324 related to?
Ans. mention of election commission

Q_25. What is Article 300 related to?
Ans. a. Caste/Tribe Reservation

Q.26. What is Article 343 related to?
Ans. official language of the union

Q_27. What is Article 352 related to?
Ans. provision for emergency

Q.28. What is Article 360 ​​related to?
Ans. provision for financial crisis

Q_29. What is Article 368 related to? Ans. constitutional amendment provision

Q-30. What is Article 370 related to?
Ans. Special status to Jammu and Kashmir

⚫ Limitation Period:

1. The time for filing first appeal in civil cases is 30 days.

2. The time for filing second appeal in civil cases is 60 days.

3. The time for filing civil revision is 90 days.

4. Limitation period of appeal in capital punishment, 7 days.

5. Limitation period of appeal From Magistrate to Sessions Court, 30 days.

6. Limitation period of appeal From Sessions Court to High Court, 60 days.

7. Limitation period of appeal From High Court to Supreme Court, 30 days.

8. Limitation period of appeal From High Court to Supreme Court in special Leave to
Appeal, 30 days.

9. Limitation period of appeal From Magistrate to High Court in acquittal in Challan
Case is 30 days and in Complaint Case 60 days.

10. Limitation period of appeal From Sessions Court to High Court in acquittal in Challan
Case is 30 days and in Complaint Case 60 days.

11. Limitation period of appeal From High Court when case decide by it in its original
jurisdiction and to Division Bench than 20 days in acquittal or conviction as the case
may.

12. Plaintiff has a time of 6 years to file execution.

13. Limitation in civil suits is 3 years from the cause of action.

14. Article 150. Appeal from death sentence to High Court-7 days.

15. Article 151. High Court order on original side-appeal-20 days.

16. Article 154. Appeal to any Court other than High Court-30 days.

17. Article 155. Criminal appeal to High Court-60 days.

18. Article 157. Appeal from acquittal by State-6 months.