CHAPTER ONE: ESSENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.1 Definition of Psychology and Related Concepts
- Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
- Related Concepts: Includes mind, consciousness, cognition, and emotions.
1.2 Goals of Psychology
- To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes.
1.3 Historical Background and Major Perspectives in Psychology
- 1.3.1 Early Schools of Psychology:
- Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviorism, Psychoanalysis.
- 1.3.2 Modern Schools of Psychology:
- Cognitive Psychology, Humanistic Psychology, Biological Psychology, etc.
1.4 Branches/Subfields of Psychology
- Clinical Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Educational Psychology, etc.
1.5 Research Methods in Psychology
- Experimental, observational, survey, and case study methods.
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CHAPTER TWO: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
2.1 The Meanings of Sensation and Perception
- Sensation: The process of detecting stimuli from the environment.
- Perception: The interpretation and organization of sensory information.
2.2 Sensory Laws
- Sensory Thresholds: Minimum levels of stimulus intensity (absolute and difference thresholds).
- Sensory Adaptation: The diminished sensitivity to constant stimuli.
2.3 Perception
- 2.3.1 Selectivity of Perception: The role of attention in filtering sensory input.
- 2.3.2 Form Perception: Organizing stimuli into meaningful shapes or forms.
- 2.3.3 Depth Perception: The ability to perceive three-dimensional space.
- 2.3.4 Perceptual Constancies: Perception of objects as stable despite changes in sensory input (e.g., size, shape, color constancy).
- 2.3.5 Perceptual Illusions: Misinterpretations of sensory input.
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CHAPTER THREE: LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING
3.1 Definition, Characteristics, and Principles of Learning
- Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
- Characteristics: Adaptive, lifelong, influenced by environment.
- Principles: Reinforcement, practice, feedback.
3.2 Factors Influencing Learning
- Motivation, environment, prior knowledge, and reinforcement.
3.3 Theories of Learning and Their Applications
- 3.3.1 Behavioral Theory: Focuses on observable behaviors and external stimuli (e.g., classical and operant conditioning).
- 3.3.2 Social Learning Theory: Emphasizes observational learning and modeling (e.g., Bandura).
- 3.3.3 Cognitive Learning Theory: Focuses on internal mental processes like memory and problem-solving.
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CHAPTER FOUR: MEMORY AND FORGETTING
4.1 Memory
- 4.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory: Encoding, storage, retrieval.
- 4.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory: Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.
- 4.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory: Attention, emotions, rehearsal, interference.
4.2 Forgetting
- 4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts: Loss of information from memory.
- 4.2.2 Theories of Forgetting: Decay theory, interference theory, retrieval failure.
- 4.3 Improving Memory: Techniques like mnemonics, rehearsal, organization.
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CHAPTER FIVE: MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
5.1 Motivation
- 5.1.1 Definition and Types of Motivation:
- Intrinsic (internal rewards) and extrinsic (external rewards).
- 5.1.2 Approaches to Motivation:
- Theories such as Maslow's hierarchy, drive theory, and expectancy theory.
- 5.1.3 Conflict of Motives and Frustration: Occurs when competing motives or obstacles hinder goal attainment.
5.2 Emotions
- 5.2.1 Definition of Emotion: A complex psychological state involving subjective feelings, physiological responses, and behaviors.
- 5.2.2 Theories of Emotion:
- James-Lange Theory, Cannon-Bard Theory, Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory.
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