NEET JEE Chemistry Notes Quiz Tricks PDF

Some Basic principles and Techniques (Isomerism) 11 : Class Notes | Yakeen NEET 2.0 2025 (Legend).pdf

D-Block Handwritten Notes

🌟Trick for S.A. , S.B  & W.A , W.B🌟

👉STRONG ACID💪
Remember 7 strong acid...
Out of those, 4 acid are made up of halogen so it is simple
eg. HCl, HBr, HI , HF
For remaining 3 acid, remember the subscipts 2,3,4 eg. H2SO4 , HCLO3, HCLO4
And all types of salt

It works for me❤️

👉WEAK ACID 🫠
Those acid who don't comes under the 7 names of above strong acid can be considered as weak acid... They includes oxyacids of P and many more

👉STRONG BASE 💪
Any soluble salt that contains hydroxide are strong base
ALL ALKALI METAL HYDROXIDE except - Ba(OH)2
Alkali metal = group 1 members

👉WEAK BASE 🫠
ALL ALKALINE EARTH METAL HYDROXIDE except Ba(OH)2 ,all organic base.
Alkaline earth metals - group -2 members

✪ S-Block Handwritten Notes 👨‍💻

(💐#New) Share & React Below

f block Elements

❤️IMPORTANT INORGANIC REACTIONS😀

#SAVE📱#SHARE ✅

✅ Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis

✍️ Electrolysis is a process of passing a direct current through the electrodes to achieve a chemical reaction. It is not possible to achieve a chemical reaction when the chosen electrolyte is in a solid-state.

✍️ Aqua regia also known as royal water is a yellow-orange mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid in the ratio 1:3. It is used by an alchemist to dissolve noble metals like gold and silver.

✍️ Electrodes which do not take part in the chemical reaction during electrolysis are known as inert electrodes. Gold, silver and graphite do not take part in the process, but graphite is preferred because gold and silver electrodes are expensive.

✍️ In the electrolysis of NaCl, if the electrolyte is molten NaCl, then the only ions formed after dissociation are Na+ and Cl– ions. The cathode being a negatively charged electrode attracts the positive Na+ ions and neutralizes it to form Sodium metal.

✍️ Na2SO4 dissociates into Na+ and SO42- ions in the electrolysis of aqueous Na2SO4. Na+ has much lower reduction potential than water and hence Na+ ions are not reduced at the cathode. Instead, reduction of water occurs giving out hydrogen gas at the cathode.

✍️ In the electrolysis of aqueous CuSO4, Cu2+, SO42+, H+ and OH– are the ions formed after dissociation. Copper ions have much higher reduction potential than water. Hence, these ions are easily reduced and deposited as Cu at the cathode.

✍️ Electroplating is a process that uses direct electric current to carry metal ions from anode and carry them through the electrolyte containing the metal ion to the cathode to get a coherent metal coating.

✍️ The electrolyte in electrolysis should contain the metal to be coated, gold in this case. AuCN is used because it is exceptionally stable and doesn’t resist the flow of Au+ ions from anode to cathode.

✍️ The two electrodes that are used in a Daniell cell are zinc (as anode) and copper (as cathode) electrodes which are dipped in a solution containing its own ions, generally zinc sulphate and copper sulphate.

✍️ Yes, the distance between the electrodes is directly proportional to the resistance between them. As the distance between the two electrodes increases, the resistance offered by the electrolyte increases and therefore reduces the voltage between them.

🌟Trick for S.A. , S.B  & W.A , W.B🌟

👉STRONG ACID💪
Remember 7 strong acid...
Out of those, 4 acid are made up of halogen so it is simple
eg. HCl, HBr, HI , HF
For remaining 3 acid, remember the subscipts 2,3,4 eg. H2SO4 , HCLO3, HCLO4
And all types of salt

It works for me❤️

👉WEAK ACID 🫠
Those acid who don't comes under the 7 names of above strong acid can be considered as weak acid... They includes oxyacids of P and many more

👉STRONG BASE 💪
Any soluble salt that contains hydroxide are strong base
ALL ALKALI METAL HYDROXIDE except - Ba(OH)2
Alkali metal = group 1 members

👉WEAK BASE 🫠
ALL ALKALINE EARTH METAL HYDROXIDE except Ba(OH)2 ,all organic base.
Alkaline earth metals - group -2 members

▪️Chemistry Important One Liner ▪️

🔹 The industrial production of aluminum from bauxite is by industrial process - electrical decomposition
🔹 Hydrogen is made up of acids, hydrogen and elements - chlorine.
🔹 The commercial utility of ethylene and styrene is due to their potential – polymerization
🔹 The compound that does not form a clean solution with water is benzoic acid.
🔹 Pure alcohol from Sura can be obtained from this process- Distillation
🔹 The highest amount of substance found in ocean water is- ordinary salt
🔹 The gas produced by the fermentation of a sugar solution is- carbon dioxide.
🔹 The pH of an aqueous solution of acetic acid is 2 What will be added to it will increase its pH value- Aqueous ammonia
🔹 Natural substance, which is made up of only one element and from which energy can be obtained – coal
🔹 Water is often not used to extinguish petrol fires because- water and petrol are inseparable. Petrol forms a layer on the surface of water
🔹 Industrial is a group of substances made by electrical decomposition - caustic soda, chlorine, aluminum
🔹 The gas that pollutes the environment is- sulfur dioxide.
🔹 The most important compounds for plant growth are made of- Nitrogen
🔹 How the compound made by heating caustic soda solution with flaxseed oil is used- soap
🔹 Sulfur dioxide and oxygen are two gases used in the industrial production of sulfuric acid
🔹 Steel contains- 0.1–2 percent carbon
🔹 The component of air used in the respiratory process is- oxygen.
🔹 The main role of salts in food is- to make a small amount of hydrochloric acid which helps in digestion of food.
🔹 The most commonly used metal by humans is iron.
🔹 The main component of cow dung gas is – Methane
🔹 The best fertilizer for plants is- compost
🔹 The pH of aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid can be approximately – 2
🔹 The highest element found in rocks and minerals is- silicon.
🔹 The gas used to extinguish the fire is carbon dioxide.
🔹 The aqueous solution of which gas has a strong acidic property - sulfur dioxide

🔰Carbon and its Compounds🔰

✍️ Introduction
➖Carbon plays very important roles for all living beings.
➖The amount of carbon in the earth’s crust is merely 0.02%, which is available in the form of minerals such as carbonates, hydrogen-carbonates, coal, and petroleum.
➖The presence of carbon in the atmosphere of the earth is 0.03%, in the form of carbon dioxide.

✍️ Compounds of Carbon
➖Almost all carbon compounds (except a few) are poor conductors of the electricity.
➖The diamond and graphite both are formed by carbon atoms; however, the difference lies between them in the manner in which the carbon atoms are bonded to one another.
➖In diamond, each atom of the carbon, is bonded to four other carbon atoms and form a rigid three-dimensional structure.
➖In graphite, each atom of the carbon, is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane, which gives a hexagonal array.
➖There is also difference in some physical structure of diamond and graphite.
➖Diamond is the hardest substance known whereas graphite is smooth and slippery substance.
➖Graphite is good conductor of electricity whereas diamond is not.
➖The compounds, which has identical molecular formula, but different structures, are known as structural isomers.
➖The saturated hydrocarbons are known as alkanes.
➖The unsaturated hydrocarbons, which comprise of one or more double bonds, are known as alkenes.
➖The unsaturated hydrocarbons, which comprise of one or more triple bonds, are known as alkynes.

✍️ Use of Alcohol as Fuel
➖Sugarcane plants very efficient convert sunlight into chemical energy and its juice can be used to prepare molasses.
➖When molasses is fermented, it produces alcohol (ethanol).
➖Some of the countries now using alcohol as an additive in petrol, as it is a cleaner fuel.
➖These alcohol, on burning in sufficient air (oxygen), gives rise to only carbon dioxide and water.


✍️ Esters
➖Esters are sweet-smelling substances, which are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
➖When esters react in the presence of an acid or a base, it gives back the alcohol and carboxylic acid.
➖The reaction of esters with an acid or a base, is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.
➖The molecules of soap normally are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
➖Interestingly, the ionic-end of soap dissolves in water whereas the carbon chain dissolves in oil. This typical features of the soap molecules forms structures known as micelles.
➖In micelles, one end of the molecules is towards the oil droplet whereas the ionic-end remains outside.
➖The soap micelle helps in dissolving the dirt in water; likewise, the clothes get cleaned.
➖On the other hand, detergents are usually ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids, which remain effective even in hard water.
➖Detergents are customarily used to make shampoos and some other products for cleaning clothes.

✅ Nuclear Energy

✍️Introduction
➖Nuclear reactions release tremendous amount of energy (known as nuclear energy), which are being used to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant.
➖The nuclear energy normally produced by nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, and nuclear decay.
➖In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, and the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner conducted the experiments in which the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. As result of this experiment, the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces and released massive energy.
➖The nuclear experiments of Otto Hahn and his colleagues are popular as nuclear fission.

✍️Nuclear Fission
➖The process of nuclear fission produces free neutrons and gamma photons, while doing this also releases a very large amount of energy.
➖Nuclear fission is an exothermic reaction, which can release large amounts of energy in the forms of electromagnetic radiation as well as kinetic energy.
➖Nuclear fission, sometimes, can occur naturally (i.e. without neutron bombardment) as a type of radioactive decay.

✍️Types of Nuclear Fission
➖Chain Reaction
➭ When one single nuclear reaction causes one or more subsequent nuclear reactions, it is known as chain reaction.
➭ Such chain reaction increases the possibility of a self-propagating series of nuclear reactions.
➭ The nuclear chain reactions release million times more energy per reaction than any other chemical reaction; therefore, it is also known as explosive or uncontrolled chain reaction.
➭ When a heavy atom experiences nuclear fission, it normally breaks into two or more fission fragments. During the process, several free neutrons, gamma rays, and neutrinos are emitted, and ultimately a large amount of energy is released.
➭ Following are the two examples of chain reaction −
235U + → neutron Fission fragments + 2.4 neutrons + 192.9 MeV
235Pu + → neutron Fission fragments + 2.9 neutrons + 198.9 MeV
➭ In atom bomb, chain reaction technology is used, as it required consistent source of energy.

➖Fission Reaction
➭ The fission reaction in which neutrons (produced by fission of fuel atoms) are used to induce yet more fission for the release of sustainable energy, is known as fission reactions.
➭ Such reactions are slow and controllable; therefore, also known as controlled chain reaction.
➭ The power (electricity) producing nuclear reactor is an ideal example of controlled chain reaction.
➭ Based on the properties and type of usages, fission/controlled chain reaction is classified as −
Power reactors
Research reactors
Breeder reactors
➭ These power reactors generally convert the kinetic energy of fission products into heat; further, the heat is used to heat a working fluid that drives a heat engine, which ultimately generates mechanical or electrical power.

➭ Basic components of Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear fuels − Such as Uranium (233U, 235U), thorium (Th232), plutonium (Pu239).
Moderators − Used to control the emitted neutrons. E.g. heavy water, beryllium, graphite, etc.
Coolant − It is used to cool the reactor. E.g. water, steam, helium, CO2, air, molten metals, etc.
Control rods − It is used to run and stop the fission reaction. E.g. cadmium or boron rods are used for such purpose.

➖Nuclear Fusion
➭ The process by which two light nuclei are fused to form a heavy nucleus is known as nuclear fusion; during this process, a tremendous amount of energy is being released known as nuclear energy.
➭ The best example of nuclear fusion is – hydrogen bomb.
➭ A hydrogen bomb is about 1,000 times more powerful than an atom bomb.

✅Notes on s-Block Elements:

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals:

➖These are soft in nature and can be cut with the help of knife except the lithium.
➖The atoms of alkali metals have the largest size in their respective periods.
➖The first ionization energy of the alkali metals are the lowest as compared to the elements in the other group.
➖The alkali metals show +1 oxidation state.
➖The alkali metals have low values of reduction potential (as shown in table-I) and therefore have a strong tendency to lose electrons and act as good reducing agents.
➖The melting and boiling points of alkali metals are very low because the intermetallic bonds in them are quite weak.

Hydroxides of Alkali Metals:

a)All the alkali metals, their oxides, peroxides and superoxides readily dissolve in water to produce corresponding hydroxides which are strong alkalies.

➖2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

➖Na2O + 2H2O 2NaOH

➖Na2O2 + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2O2

➖2KO2 + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2O2 + O2

b) The basic strength of these hydroxides increases as we move down the group Li to Cs.
c) All these hydroxides are highly soluble in water and thermally stable except lithium hydroxide.
d) Alkali metals hydroxides being strongly basic react with all acids forming salts.

➖NaOH + HCI → NacI + H2O
➖2NaOH + H2 SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Halides of Alkali metals:
➖M2O + 2HX → 2MX + H2O
➖MOH + HX → MX + H2O
➖M2CO3 + 2HX → 2MX + CO2 + H2O (M = Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs)

(X = F, Cl, Br or I)
➖ll the alkali metals form ionic (electrovalent) compounds.
➖The alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
➖Alkali metals (except Li) exhibit photoelectric effect
➖The alkali metals and their salts impart a characteristic colour to flame.

✍️Notes on Environmental Chemistry:

🔹Components of Environment:

➖Atmosphere: This comprises a blanket of gaseous layer around earth.

➖Hydrosphere: This comprises about 96% of earth’s surface & includes all sources of water like oceans rivers lakes, glaciers, ground water etc.

➖Lithosphere: It refers to earth’s solid crust containing the outer mineral cover. It comprises soil, minerals, organic matter etc.

➖ Biosphere: It refers to the domain of living organism in covalent with atmosphere hydrosphere as well as lithosphere.

🔹Environmental Pollution :
Process of contamination of the environment with harmful wastes arising mainly from human activities.

➖Pollutant: Any substance or species produced either by a natural source or by human activity, which produces adverse effect on the environment.

➖Contaminant: A substance which does not occurs in nature but is introduced by human activity into the atmosphere affecting its composition.

➖Source: The site from which the pollution or contaminants originate.

➖Sink: The material or medium which consumes or interacts with a long lived pollutant is called sink.

➖Receptor : Anything that is affected by the pollutants.

➖Threshold limit value (TLV) : This indicates the permissible limit of a pollutant in atmosphere to which a healthy worker is exposed during hours a day or 40 hours a week for life time without any adverse effects. TLV are determined by experimentation on animals, by use of medical knowledge, epidemiology surveys & environmental studies.

🔹Tropospheric pollution or Air pollution:
It is the atmosphere condition in which the presence of certain concentration produce harmful effects on man and his environment. These substances include:

(i) Gases such as oxides of sulphur, CO, oxide of N2 and hydrocarbons

(ii) Particulate matter such as dust, smoke, fumes etc.

(iii) Radioactive material & many others.

➖Primary pollutants : These are the pollutants which are emitted directly from the sources. Some examples are:

➖Particulate Matter : Such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes etc.

➖Inorganic gases : Such as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide etc.


🔹Particulate matter:

➖Soot: produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fossils fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas, wood etc in insufficient supply of oxygen.

➖Metal particles: These are released by various metal finishing operation. The micro particles of toxic metal & SO2 gas present in the polluted atmosphere get absorbed on the particles rendering them highly toxic.

➖Metal oxides : They are generated by combustion of fuels containing metallic compounds.

➖Lead salts: Their source is lead tetraethyl (Pb(C2H5)4) which is added to gasoline to improve its antiknock property. In order to avoid deposition of PbO suitable amounts of C2H4Cl2 & C2H4Br2 are added to gasoline along with Pb(C2H5)4.

➖Fly ash: It originates from the combustion of high ash fossil. It contains partially burnt particles of the fuels.

➖Asbestos dust: It originates from industrial units manufacturing asbestos sheets, gaskets ropes etc. Asbestos flowing & asbestos insulations also contribute towards asbestos dust in the atmosphere.

➖Solid Hydrocarbons: These are emitted from petroleum refineries & comprise of paraffins, olefins & aromatics.

➖Dust Particulates: Originate from natural, domestic, industrial or agricultural sources. These are thrown into atmosphere by volcanic eruptions, blowing of dust by wind, mining operations etc.

➖Acid mist : Sulphuric acid mist is produced when SO3 present in the atmosphere comes in contact with moisture. Nitric acid mist is produced when oxides of nitrogen, viz, NO & NO2, undergo the series of reactions in the atmosphere.

👍 महत्वपूर्ण बिंदु: इलेक्ट्रोकैमिस्ट्री - गैल्वेनिक सेल


🎯️ गैल्वेनिक सेल एक प्रकार का इलेक्ट्रोकेमिकल सेल है जो रासायनिक ऊर्जा को विद्युत ऊर्जा में परिवर्तित करता है। विद्युत रासायनिक सेल जो विद्युत ऊर्जा को रासायनिक ऊर्जा में परिवर्तित करती है, इलेक्ट्रोलाइटिक सेल कहलाती है।

🎯️ इलेक्ट्रोकेमिकल कोशिकाओं को गैल्वेनिक या वोल्टाइक सेल भी कहा जाता है, लुइगी गैलवानी और एलेसेंड्रो वोल्टा के नाम पर, जो रासायनिक ऊर्जा को विद्युत ऊर्जा में बदलने पर प्रयोग करने वाले पहले व्यक्ति थे।

🎯️ एक नमक पुल में, KCl, KNO3 या NH4NO3 जैसे इलेक्ट्रोलाइट्स को प्राथमिकता दी जाती है क्योंकि उनके आयनों में लगभग समान परिवहन संख्या होती है, अर्थात, 0.5, यानी, वे लगभग उसी गति से चलते हैं जब एक विद्युत प्रवाह प्रवाहित होता है

🎯️ विद्युत ऊर्जा में रासायनिक ऊर्जा को परिवर्तित करने के लिए गैल्वेनिक कोशिकाओं का उपयोग किया जाता है। दो इलेक्ट्रोड आमतौर पर दो अलग-अलग बीकरों में लगाए जाते हैं। दो बीकरों में लिए गए इलेक्ट्रोलाइट्स अलग हैं। गैल्वेनिक कोशिकाएं स्वतःस्फूर्त रेडॉक्स प्रतिक्रियाओं पर आधारित होती हैं। इस सेल को स्थापित करने के लिए एक साल्ट ब्रिज का उपयोग किया जाता है।

🎯️ एनोड एक इलेक्ट्रोड है जहां ऑक्सीकरण होता है। एक गैल्वेनिक सेल में एक एनोड एक नकारात्मक ध्रुव है। इलेक्ट्रोलाइटिक सेल में, एनोड सकारात्मक ध्रुव के रूप में कार्य करता है। कैथोड इलेक्ट्रोड होते हैं जहां कमी होती है।

🎯️ धातु की ऑक्सीकरण क्षमता जितनी अधिक होती है, उतनी ही आसानी से यह इलेक्ट्रॉनों को खो सकती है और इसलिए इसकी प्रतिक्रियाशीलता अधिक होती है। परिणामस्वरूप, अधिक ऑक्सीकरण क्षमता वाली धातु कम ऑक्सीकरण क्षमता वाली धातुओं को उनके नमक के घोल से विस्थापित कर सकती है।

🌀Sodium➡️

➖Sodium is a soft, silvery color, and highly reactive alkali metal.
➖In the periodic table, Sodium is kept in group 1, as it has single electron in its outer shell.
➖The symbol of sodium is ‘Na,’ which has been actually taken from Latin word ‘natrium.’
➖In terms of abundance, sodium is the sixth element found in the Earth's crust.
➖Sodium exists in various minerals including feldspars, sodalite, and rock salt (NaCl).
➖In 1807, Humphry Davy first isolated sodium by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide.
➖By the time, 20 isotopes of sodium are known, but among all, only 23Na is stable.


✅Salient Features of Sodium
➖Sodium metal a soft element that be can be easily cut with a knife.
➖Sodium is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
➖Because of having low atomic mass and large atomic radius, sodium is one of the least dense elements (third least dense element – first two are lithium and potassium).
➖Sodium can float on water.
➖Sodium along its compounds glow yellow (see image below).
➖Sodium compounds have very high commercial importance and have high demand in the industries of glass, paper, soap, and textiles.


✅Occurrence of Sodium
➖The crust of Earth contains about 2.27% sodium.
➖Sodium is the 5th most abundant metal; other four are aluminum, iron, calcium, and magnesium.
➖In the oceanic water, about 1.08 × 104 milligrams sodium found in per liter.
➖Sodium does not found as a pure element, as it is highly reactive.


✅Uses of Sodium
➖Sodium chloride is highly useful for anti-icing and de-icing as well as a preservative.
➖In cooking, sodium bicarbonate is used.
➖Sodium and some of its compounds are used in medicines.
➖In comparison to potassium (which is a better ion), sodium is more frequently used because of its lower price and atomic weight.
➖In organic chemistry, sodium hydride is used as various reactions.
➖Metallic sodium is principally used for the production of sodium borohydride, sodium triphenylphosphine, azide, indigo, etc.
➖In some fast reactors, liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid because of having the property of good heat conductivity.
➖Sodium is also an essential mineral for the human health, as it regulates blood pressure, blood volume, osmotic equilibrium, and pH value.
➖The minimum amount of 500 milligrams sodium is required every day for a healthy human body.

💢 Structure of Atoms SHORT NOTES 💢

💡 Important Increasing Order

✅BOND ANGLE :-
(i) CH4 , C2H4 , C2H2
(ii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , CO2
(iii) H2O, NH3 , CH4 , BH3
(iv) NO2—, NO2 , NO2+
(v) H2Se, H2S, H2O
(vi) AsH3 , PH3 , NH3
(vii) PF3 , PCl3 , PBr3 , PI3
(viii) NF3 , NCl3
(ix) NF3 , NH3 , NCl3
(x) OF2 , OH2 , Cl2O

✅MELTING POINT :-
(i) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li
(ii) Mg, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be
(iii) CaI2 , CaBr2 , CaCl2 , CaF2
(iv) BeCl2 , MgCl2 , CaCl2 , SrCl2 , BaCl2
(v) NaI, NaBr, NaCl, NaF
(vi) CsCl, RbCl, KCl, NaCl
(vii) AlCl3 , MgCl2 , NaCl

✅BOILING POINT :-
(i) PH3 , AsH3 , NH3 , SbH3
(ii) H2S, H2Se, H2O
(iii) HCl, HBr, HI, HF
(iv) NH3 , HF, H2O
(v) He, Ne, Ar, Kr
(vi) H2O, D2O
(vii) H2 , Cl2 , Br2

✅DIPOLE MOMENTS :-
(i) CCl4 , CHCl3 , CH2Cl2 ,CH3Cl
(ii) NF3 , NH3 , H2O, HF
(iii) Cis-chloropropene, Trans-chloropropene
(iv) p, m, o-dichlorobenzene
(v) CH3I, CH3Br, CH3F, CH3Cl
(vi) NH3 , SO2 , H2O, HF
(vii) H2S, H2O
(viii) HI, HBr, HCl, HF
(ix) PH3 , ASH3 , SbH3 , NH3
(x) H2O, H2O2

Mind maps: Haloalkanes & Haloarenes

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