HISTORY@PARAMPREET

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Architectural innovations and achievements of the Khalji dynasty

The Khalji dynasty, despite its short reign (1290-1320), left an indelible mark on Indian architecture, particularly in the development of Indo-Islamic architectural style. Their contributions represent a crucial phase of experimentation and consolidation, bridging the earlier styles with the more mature expressions of later periods.

Key Architectural Innovations and Achievements:

Expansion of Delhi: The Khaljis significantly expanded the city of Delhi, establishing new cities like Siri (the second city of Delhi) to accommodate their growing empire and administrative needs. This urban expansion provided a canvas for architectural innovation.

Alai Darwaza: Built by Alauddin Khalji, the Alai Darwaza is considered a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture. It showcases a sophisticated blend of Islamic architectural forms, such as arches and domes, with indigenous Indian elements. The use of red sandstone, intricate carvings, and marble inlay work exemplifies the evolving aesthetic sensibilities of the period.

Siri Fort: The construction of Siri Fort, encompassing the city of Siri, was a major undertaking. While much of it is in ruins today, it exemplifies the Khalji focus on military preparedness and urban planning. The fort's design incorporated elements of both Islamic and Indian fortification traditions.

Jami Masjid (Siri): Though not as well-preserved as the Alai Darwaza, the Jami Masjid within Siri represents an important example of congregational mosque architecture during the Khalji period. It likely served as a model for later mosques in the region.

Use of Red Sandstone: The Khaljis extensively used red sandstone as a primary building material. This choice, combined with marble detailing, became a characteristic feature of Delhi Sultanate architecture in the subsequent Tughlaq period.

Experimentation with Decorative Elements: The Khalji period witnessed experimentation with various decorative elements, including calligraphy, geometric patterns, and floral motifs. These elements, often integrated into the building's fabric, reflect the growing synthesis of Islamic and Indian artistic traditions.

Significance in Indian Art History:

Transitional Phase: The Khalji period represents a transitional phase in Indo-Islamic architecture. It moved away from the earlier, more austere styles influenced by Central Asian traditions and towards a more ornate and integrated style that incorporated indigenous Indian elements more prominently.

Development of Indo-Islamic Style: The Khaljis laid the groundwork for the mature Indo-Islamic style that flourished under later dynasties like the Tughlaqs and the Lodis. Their experimentation with materials, decorative elements, and architectural forms contributed to the evolution of a distinct architectural vocabulary.

Patronage of Arts: The Khalji rulers, particularly Alauddin Khalji, were patrons of the arts. Their patronage fostered a creative environment that encouraged architectural innovation and the development of new artistic styles.

Influence on Later Architecture: The architectural innovations of the Khaljis, especially the use of red sandstone, the development of the arch and dome, and the integration of decorative elements, had a lasting impact on Indian architecture, influencing the design of mosques, tombs, and other structures in subsequent centuries.

The Khalji period, though brief, holds a significant place in Indian art history. Their architectural contributions represent a crucial step in the development of the Indo-Islamic style, showcasing a dynamic interplay of cultural influences and artistic innovation.

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Historical and Biographical Works (IGNOU Notes, Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar, Tamil Nadu Books)

1. Baburnama: Autobiography of Babur, originally in Chagatai Turkish, translated into Persian by Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khanan.

2. Humayun Nama: Written by Gulbadan Begum, documenting the reign and personal life of Humayun.

3. Qanun-i-Humayun: Treatise on statecraft, by Khwandamir during Humayun's reign, reflecting socio-political framework.

4. Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari: By Abul Fazl, providing exhaustive details of Akbar's reign, administration, and policies.

5. Tabaqat-i-Akbari: Authored by Nizamuddin Ahmad, chronicling Mughal history up to Akbar's reign in Tabaqat (layered) style.

6. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir's autobiography blending administrative insights with personal reflections.

7. Tawarikh-i-Alfi: Commissioned by Akbar to commemorate 1,000 years of Islamic history. Compiled by Mulla Daud, covering key events up to Akbar's time.

8. Two Historical accounts of Shah Jahan's reign: Inayat Khan and Muhammad Salih, commonly known as Shah Jahan Namah.

9. Padshah Nama: Chronicles of Shah Jahan's rule by Abdul Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Waris.

10. Alamgir Nama: Written by Muhammad Kazim, documenting Aurangzeb's reign.

11. Futuhat-i-Alamgiri: By Ishwar Das Nagar, covering Aurangzeb's campaigns.

12. Iqbal Namah: A history of Jahangir's reign by Mutamad Khan.

13. Other notable Indian & Persian writers in Mughal Court were Faizi, Urfi, Naziri, Talib Amuli, Kalim, Ghani Kashmiri, Saib & Bedil.

Religious and Philosophical Works (IGNOU Notes, Satish Chandra, Srivastava, NIOS)

1. Sirr-I-Akbar: Persian translation of the Upanishads by Dara Shikoh, emphasizing Hindu-Muslim philosophical synthesis.

2. Majma-ul-Bahrain: By Dara Shikoh, exploring the confluence of Islamic Sufi and Hindu mystical traditions.

3. Safinat-ul-Auliya: Biographies of Sufi saints by Dara Shikoh.

4. Sakinat-ul-Auliya: A biographical account of Sufi saint Miyan Mir and his disciples, authored by Dara Shikoh.

5. Hasanat-ul-Arifin: Explores Dara Shikoh's religious and philosophical ideas.

Persian Poetry and Letters (IGNOU Notes, Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar, Tamil Nadu Books, A.L. Srivastava, NIOS)

1. Faizi: A poet laureate under Akbar, contributing extensively to Persian poetry and translations like Nal Daman.

2. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: Known for blending Persian and Hindi literary styles and composing devotional works.

3. Zeb-un-Nisa: Daughter of Aurangzeb, known for her Persian ghazals.

4. Ruqaat-i-Alamgiri: Collection of letters by Aurangzeb, offering insights into governance and personal thought.

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RAMAYANA

#Historicalsources

📍 The composition of Ramayana can be placed between the 5th/4th century BCE and the 3rd century CE.

📍 Of seven Kandas (books), of which the first (Bala Kanda) and last (Uttara Kanda) are later interpolations.

📍 The Ramayana exists in the form of two main recensions—northern and southern.

📍 The language of the northern recension is more elaborate and polished than that of the southern one.

📍 The compact vocabulary and style indicate that the core of the text was the work of a single individual, identified as Valmiki.

📍 The popularity and dynamism of the Rama story is indicated by the fact that apart from the Valmiki Ramayana there are numerous other tellings of the story :-

• a Jaina version (the Paumachariu of Vimalasuri, in Prakrit),

• a Buddhist version (the Dasharatha Jataka in Pali),

• a 12th century Tamil version by Kamban (the Iramavataram), and

• The Ramcharitmanas (16th century) by Tulsidas, to name only a few.

MAHABHARATA

#Historicalsources

📍 The Mahabharata consists of 18 Parvas (books) and has two main recensions—a northern and southern.

📍According to tradition, Mahabharata was composed by Vyasa.

📍The Mahabharata is truly an encyclopaedic work, and it boasts of this fact.

📍 A heroic story formed the core to which many other stories, sermons, and didactic portions containing teachings, were added over centuries.

📍 Whether a bitter war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas ever happened cannot be proved or disproved.

📍 It is possible that there was a small-scale conflict, transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets.

VEDAS [ PART 2]

#Historicalsources

Each Veda has four parts, the last three of which sometimes blend into each other— the Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad.

SAMHITA

📍The Rig Veda Samhita is a collection of 1,028 hymns arranged in 10 books.

📍The Sama Veda consists of 1,810 verses, mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda, arranged according to the needs of musical notation.

📍The Yajur Veda deals with the details of the performance of rituals.

📍The Atharva Veda is the latest Veda and contains hymns, but also spells and charms which reflect aspects of popular beliefs and practices.

BRAHMANAS

📍The Brahmanas are prose explanations of the Samhita portions and give details and explanations of sacrificial rituals and their outcome.

ARANAYAKAS

📍 It interpret sacrificial rituals in a symbolic and philosophical way.

UPNISHADS

📍 There are 108 Upanishads, among which 13 are considered the principal ones.

VEDAS [PART - 1]

#Historicalsources

📍 The word Veda comes from the root vid (literally, ‘to know’) and means ‘knowledge’.

📍 The Vedas have the status of shruti (literally, ‘that which has been heard’).

📍 They are thought to embody an eternal, self-existent truth realized by the rishis (seers) in a state of meditation or revealed to them by the gods.

📍 The category of smriti (literally, ‘remembered’) texts includes the Vedanga, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastra, and Nitishastra.

📍 There are four Vedas—Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva.

Birsa Munda: The Voice of Indigenous Uprising and Freedom

Birsa Munda (1875-1900) was an iconic freedom fighter, a spiritual leader, and a folk hero whose legacy continues to inspire millions. Born in the village of Ulihatu in present-day Jharkhand, Birsa was part of the Munda tribe. His early life was shaped by the rich traditions of his community and the hardships they faced under British colonial rule. Birsa’s deep spiritual inclination led him to develop a unique socio-religious movement known as 'Birsait', aimed at reforming and uniting tribal communities.

🔷 The Revolutionary Spirit
Birsa Munda is best remembered for leading the Munda Rebellion, also known as the Ulgulan (meaning “The Great Tumult”), against British exploitation and the oppressive land system. His call for “Abua Raj” (“Our Kingdom”) was a powerful message advocating for self-governance and freedom from the clutches of landlords and colonial administrators. The movement, though ultimately suppressed, marked a significant chapter in India's struggle for independence, showcasing the valor and resilience of indigenous tribes.

🔷 Birsa Munda in 2024: Remembering a Hero
This year, as India commemorates various milestones in its history, Birsa Munda's legacy finds renewed focus in discussions about indigenous rights and cultural heritage. His birth anniversary, November 15, has gained special recognition as “Janjatiya Gaurav Divas”, underscoring the importance of remembering tribal leaders in the larger narrative of India's freedom struggle. Events, exhibitions, and educational programs are planned across the country to honor his contributions and to foster awareness about tribal histories and rights.

Birsa Munda’s life and revolutionary spirit remain a source of inspiration in modern times, reminding us of the importance of resilience, unity, and the fight for justice.

Nine Gems of Akbar and his Talents

1. Birbal – The most intelligent king Birbal was the war advisor of Akbar. His childhood name was Maheshdas. His imaginary stories with Akbar are still told humorously. Birbal was also a poet. Birbal was the first and last Hindu ruler to accept Deen-e-Ilahi religion.

2. Abul Fazal – Historian Abul Fazal wrote down the major events of Akbar's reign, he composed Akbarnama and Ain-e-Akbari. Panchatantra was translated into Persian language by Abul Fazal under the name Anwar-e-Sadat. He was born in Agra.

3. Tansen – Music Emperor Tansen was a brilliant musician in the court of Akbar. His childhood name was Ramtanu Pandey. Akbar had given him the title of eloquent orator!

4. Raja Bhagwan Das – Bhagwan Das was the son of Raja Bharmal of Amer. His sister was married to Akbar. Akbar had made him a Mansabdar of Rs 5000. He took part in many important wars. He was a truthful, courageous and brave man.

5. Abdul Rahim Khane Khana – He was the royal poet in Akbar's court.

6. Raja Todar Mal – During the golden period of Mughal era i.e. the era of Akbar, there is a lot of mention of two Hindus Birbal and Raja Man Singh, but Raja Todar Mal is not mentioned in that way. Although he was also very close to Akbar. He was the Revenue Minister i.e. Diwan in his court.

7. Raja Mansingh – Raja Mansingh was the chief commander of Akbar's army. It is said that Mansingh had an important contribution in making Akbar's attitude towards Hindus more liberal.

8. Mulla Do Pyaza – Mulla Do Pyaza was a resident of Arabia. He came to India during the time of Humayun. Because he liked Do Pyaza more during meals, Akbar used to address him by the name of Do Pyaza. Due to his ability and loyalty towards the emperor, he also became one of Akbar's nine gems.

9. Hakim Hukkam – Hakim Hukkam was an advisor to Mughal Emperor Akbar and one of the Navaratnas.

📚Historical book and creator (ऐतिहासिक ग्रन्थ एवं रचनाकार)

Kathasaritsagara = Somdev
कथासरित्सागर = सोमदेव

Brihatkathamanjari = Kshemendra
बृहत्कथामंजरी = क्षेमेन्द्र

Mricchakatikam = Shudrak
मृच्छकटिकम् = शूद्रक

Dashkumarcharit = Dandi
दशकुमारचरित = दण्डी

Arthashastra = Kautilya
अर्थशास्त्र = कौटिल्य

Prithviraj Vijay = Jayanak
पृथ्वीराज विजय = जयानक

Harshacharita = Banabhatta
हर्षचरित = बाणभट्ट

Management Fund = Rajasekhar
प्रबन्ध कोश = राजशेखर

Ramcharit = Hemchandra
रामचरित = हेमचन्द्र

Kumarapalacharita = Jaisingh
कुमारपालचरित = जयसिंह

Dwayashraya Kavya = Hemchandra
द्वयाश्रय काव्य = हेमचन्द्र

Navasahasankach = Padmagupta Rit
नवसाहसांकच = पद्मगुप्त रित

Gaudvaho = eloquence
गौड़वाहो = वाक्पति

Vikramankadev = Bilhan Charit
विक्रमांकदेव = बिल्हण चरित

Prabandhakchinta = Merutunga Mani
प्रबन्धचिन्ता = मेरुतुंग मणि

Vasantvilas = Balchandra
वसंतविलास = बालचन्द्र

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WOMEN IN SUFISM

Early Stages: While early Sufism primarily involved men, women gradually became involved, attending gatherings, offering financial support, and engaging in spiritual practices. The concept of ishq (divine love) transcended gender boundaries, allowing women to express their devotion.

Within Khanqahs (Sufi Lodges): Women played a vital role within the domestic sphere of khanqahs, managing the household, organizing gatherings, and providing spiritual guidance to other women. Some women achieved spiritual eminence and became teachers and leaders within these communities.

Reverence for Female Saints: Several women Sufi saints, like Bibi Fatima Sam, Rabia Basri (though not from the Indian subcontinent, her influence was significant), and Hazrat Babajan, gained recognition for their piety and spiritual insights. Their stories and teachings inspired generations of followers.

Limited Formal Recognition: Despite their contributions, women often faced limitations in formal recognition and leadership roles within established Sufi orders. The patriarchal structure of society influenced the hierarchy within Sufi institutions.

WOMEN IN THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Active Participation and Leadership: Women played a more prominent and direct role in the Bhakti movement compared to Sufism. They actively participated in devotional singing, composing hymns, and establishing their own devotional communities. Notable figures like Mirabai, Andal, Akka Mahadevi, and Janabai became prominent leaders and spiritual guides.

Challenging Social Norms: Women Bhakti saints often challenged patriarchal norms and societal expectations. Mirabai, for example, defied traditional gender roles by dedicating her life to Krishna and openly expressing her devotion through poetry and song.

Focus on Personal Devotion: The Bhakti movement's emphasis on personal devotion and direct connection with the divine empowered women to express their spirituality outside the confines of traditional religious institutions. This focus on individual experience allowed them to bypass the male-dominated priesthood and establish their own spiritual authority.

Expression through Poetry and Song: Women Bhakti poets used vernacular languages to express their devotion and spiritual experiences, making their teachings accessible to a wider audience. Their poetry and songs became powerful tools for disseminating Bhakti ideals and challenging social inequalities.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Shared Emphasis on Devotion: Both movements provided avenues for women to express their devotion and spirituality, challenging the existing social order.

Differing Levels of Formal Recognition: While women in Sufism faced limitations in formal recognition, women in the Bhakti movement often achieved greater prominence and leadership roles.

Distinct Modes of Expression: Women in Sufism primarily operated within the framework of khanqahs, while women in the Bhakti movement often established independent devotional communities and expressed themselves through poetry and song.

Key theological and philosophical tenets of the Virashaiva movement

The Virashaiva movement, also known as Lingayatism, emerged in 12th-century Karnataka, spearheaded by Basaveshwara. Its theological and philosophical tenets challenged the prevailing Brahmanical orthodoxy and offered a new path to spiritual liberation. Here's a summary of the key principles:

Monotheistic Focus on Shiva: Virashaivas emphasized devotion to Shiva as the sole supreme deity. This monotheistic focus distinguished them from the prevalent polytheistic practices of the time. They viewed Shiva not as a distant, abstract god but as a personal and benevolent deity accessible to all.

Concept of Sthavara and Jangama: The philosophy distinguishes between the Sthavara (immovable) and Jangama (movable). Sthavara represents the physical and material world, including traditional idols and temples. Jangama represents the dynamic principle of the divine, residing within the individual. This concept shifted the emphasis from external rituals to inner experience and personal devotion.

Rejection of Rituals and External Practices: Virashaivas rejected the elaborate rituals, sacrifices, and pilgrimages prescribed by Brahmanical traditions. They believed true devotion resided in inner purity, ethical conduct, and unwavering faith in Shiva. This rejection of external rituals democratized religious practice, making it accessible to all regardless of caste or social status.

Emphasis on Bhakti and Guru's Grace: Bhakti, or devotion, was central to Virashaiva philosophy. They believed that through sincere devotion and the grace of the Guru, one could achieve union with Shiva. The Guru played a crucial role in guiding the devotee on the spiritual path.

Concept of Ishtalinga: The Ishtalinga, a small, portable lingam, became a central symbol of the Virashaiva faith. Wearing the Ishtalinga served as a constant reminder of one's devotion to Shiva and symbolized the presence of the divine within the individual. This practice further challenged the authority of traditional temples and priesthood.

Shatsthala Siddhanta (Six Stages of Spiritual Progress): Virashaivas believed in a gradual spiritual progression through six stages: Bhakta (Devotee), Maheshwara (Lord), Prasadi (One who receives grace), Pranalingi (One who merges life force with the divine), Sharana (One who surrenders to Shiva), and Aikya (Union with Shiva). This structured path provided a framework for spiritual development.

Social Equality and Rejection of Caste System: The movement strongly advocated for social equality and vehemently rejected the caste system. It emphasized the inherent worth of every individual, regardless of birth or social standing. This egalitarian principle attracted people from all social strata, particularly those marginalized by the existing social hierarchy.

Major socio-political changes during the Vedic period

Early Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE)

Social Organization: Early Vedic society was primarily tribal and pastoral. Family played a central role, and kinship ties were strong. The social hierarchy was relatively simple, with a nascent four-fold varna system (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra) emerging. However, these divisions were not rigid, and social mobility was possible. Women enjoyed a relatively higher status compared to later periods, participating in religious ceremonies and even composing hymns.

Political Organization: The political structure was characterized by small tribal kingdoms or janas. The king (rajan) was the leader, but his power was limited by tribal assemblies like the sabha and samiti. Warfare was primarily cattle raids, and territorial control was not a major concern.

Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-500 BCE)

Social Organization: The later Vedic period saw significant changes in social organization. The four-fold varna system became more rigid, with hereditary occupations and restrictions on inter-varna marriage. The Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) emerged as the dominant classes, while the Vaishyas (merchants and farmers) and Shudras (laborers) occupied lower positions. The status of women declined, and patriarchal norms became more pronounced. The concept of ashramas (stages of life) also developed during this period.

Political Organization: The later Vedic period witnessed the rise of larger kingdoms and empires. The concept of kingship became more elaborate, with rituals and ceremonies emphasizing the divine nature of the king. Territorial expansion and warfare became more common. The rise of powerful kingdoms like Kuru and Panchala led to the development of complex administrative systems and the codification of laws. The emergence of new religious and philosophical ideas, such as the Upanishads, also influenced the socio-political landscape.

Key Changes and Trends

Shift from Pastoralism to Agriculture: The increasing importance of agriculture led to settled life and the development of villages and towns.

Rise of Urban Centers: The growth of trade and commerce contributed to the emergence of urban centers, which became centers of political and economic power.

Development of Varna System: The varna system became more rigid and hierarchical, leading to social stratification and inequality.

Consolidation of Kingship: Kingship evolved from a tribal leadership role to a more powerful and centralized institution.

Emergence of New Religious and Philosophical Ideas: The Upanishads and other philosophical texts challenged the existing Brahmanical rituals and emphasized the importance of inner knowledge and self-realization. These ideas had a profound impact on social and religious life.

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Treaty of Salbai (1782)

• It marked the end of the first phase of the struggle between the Marathas and the British.

• The Treaty of Salbai was signed in May 1782; it was ratified by Hastings in June 1782. The treaty guaranteed peace between the two sides for twenty years.
The main provisions of the Treaty of Salbai were:

• Salsette should continue in the possession of the English

• The whole of the territory conquered since the Treaty of Purandhar (1776) including Bassein should be restored to the Marathas

• The English should not offer any further support to Raghunathrao and the Peshwa should grant him maintenance allowance

• The Peshwa should not support any other European nation

Dual Government in Bengal

• After the battle of Buxar, the East India Company became the real masters of Bengal.

• Robert Clive introduced the dual system of government, i.e., the rule of the two— the Company and the Nawab—in Bengal in which both the Diwani, i.e., collecting revenues, and Nizamat, i.e., police and judicial functions, came under the control of the Company.

• The Company exercised Diwani rights as the diwan and the Nizamat rights through its right to nominate the deputy subahdar.

• The system held a great advantage for the Company. It left the appearance of authority to the puppet Indian ruler while keeping the sovereign power in the hands of the Company. The Nawab was responsible for maintaining peace and order, but he depended both for funds and forces upon the Company because the latter controlled the army and revenues.

• But neither the Company nor the Nawab cared for administration and public welfare.

• Warren Hastings did away with the dual system in 1772.

KAKATI DEVI TEMPLE

▪️ Kakati Devi temple has been converted into an abode of local Goddess ‘Balusulamma’ (Goddess Durga).

▪️ The temple was built by emperor Ganapati Deva, ruler of Kakatiya dynasty in 13th Century. Ganapati Deva is the first king who introduced the worship of Kakati Devi into the coastal region of Andhra and outside the dominions of his kingdom.

▪️ The temple is located in Dharanikota near present Andhra Pradesh capital Amaravathi.

▪️ Kakati Devi idol is Seated in Padmasanam with eight hands and possesses eight different special attributes never found in the contemporary shrines of the Kakatiya period.

▪️ Additional Information: Kakatiya dynasty: Kakatiya dynasty (1163–1323) was a South Indian dynasty whose capital was Orugallu (Warangal). The Kakatiya rulers traced their ancestry to a legendary chief named Durjaya.

LATINA, PHAMSANA, AND VALABHI


• There are many subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara. There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts of India.


• However, the most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the ‘latina’ or the rekha- prasada type of shikara.

• The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building. Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline.

Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy

On April 13th 1919, a large crowd gathered peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab to protest the arrest of Dr. Satyapal & Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew. Colonel Reginald Dyer, the Military Commander of Amritsar, surrounded the Bagh with his troops, closed the gates & gave order to shoot at the peaceful congregation. There was a massacre. Hundreds were killed & thousands wounded. This incident is known as the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. It sent a wave of shock & horror amongst the people.

🔺 Rabindranath Tagore, in protest, renounced his knighthood - a title of honour given to him by the British.

🔺 Gandhi returned the Kaiser-e-Hind medal given to him by the South African Govt.

💠IMPORTANT DATE
🔸Rowlatt Acts - February, 1919
🔸Hunter Commission -14 October, 1919
🔸INC Session - December, 1919 ( Amritsar)

The Ghadr

• The Ghadr Party was a revolutionary group organized around a weekly newspaper ‘The Ghadr’ with its headquarters at San Francisco.

• These revolutionaries included mainly ex-soldiers and peasants who had migrated from Punjab to the USA and Canada in search of better employment opportunities.

• The Ghadr program was to organize assassinations of officials, publish revolutionary and anti-imperialist literature, work among Indian troops stationed abroad, procure arms and bring about a simultaneous revolt in all British colonies.

• The moving spirits behind the Ghadr Party were Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra, Bhagwan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Barkatullah, and Bhai Parmanand.

• The Ghadrites intended to bring about a revolt in India. Their plans were encouraged by two events in 1914—the Komagata Maru incident and the outbreak of the First World War.

Important Battles in Indian History
================================

🔹 Battle of Hydaspeas - 326 B.C.
➨ Alexander defeated Porus

🔹 Kalinga War - 261 B.C.
➨ Ashoka defeated Kalinga

🔹 First Battle of Tarain - 1191 A.D.
➨ Prithvi Raj Chauhan defeated Mohammed Ghori

🔹 Second Battle of Tarain - 1192 A.D.
➨ Mohammad Ghori defeated Prithvi Raj Chauhan

🔹 Battle of Chandawar - 1193 or 1194
➨ Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichandra Gaharwar

🔹 First Battle of Panipat - 1526 A.D.
➨ Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodi

🔹 Battle of Khanwa - 1527 A.D.
➨ Babar defeated Rana Sanga

🔹 Battle of Ghaghra - 1529 A.D.
➨ Babar defeated Mahmud Lodhi and Sultan Nusrat Shah

🔹 Battle of Chausa - 1539 A.D.
➨ Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) defeated Humayun

🔹 Battle of Kannauj (or Bilgram) - 1540 A.D.
➨ Sher Shah Suri (Sher Khan) defeated Humayun

🔹 Second Battle of Panipat - 1556 A.D.
➨ Bairam Khan (representing Mughal Emperor Akbar) defeated Hemu

🔹 Battle of Talikota - 1565 A.D.
➨ Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar formed alliance and defeated the Vijaynagar empire

🔹 Battle of Haldighati - 1576 A.D.
➨ Akbar's forces headed by Raja Man Singh and Asaf Khan defeated Rana Pratap. Rana Pratap refused to surrender to the Mughal Power

🔹 Battle of Karnal - 1739 A.D.
➨ Nadir Shah defeated Mohd. Shah

🔹 Battle of Plassey - 1757 A.D.
➨ Lord Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula

🔹 Battle of Wandiwash - 1760 A.D.
➨ The English forces defeated the French forces

🔹 Third Battle of Panipat - 1761 A.D.
➨ Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas

🔹 Battle of Buxar - 1764 A.D.
➨ The English forces defeated the alliance of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-daula of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II

🔹 First Anglo Mysore War - (1767-69 A.D.)
➨ Hyder Ali defeated the English forces

🔹 Second Anglo Mysore War - (1780-84 A.D.)
➨ Hyder Ali died in the battle (1782) and subsequently led by his son Tipu Sultan. The war concluded with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784)

🔹 Third Anglo Mysore War - (1789-92 A.D.)
➨ The English forces defeated Tipu Sultan. Treaty of Srirangapatnam was signed

🔹 Fourth Anglo Mysore War - 1799 A.D.
➨ Tipu Sultan was defeated and killed by the English forces

Inscriptions of Chandragupta Vikramaditya

✍️ Mathura Pillar Inscription — This is the first inscription of Chandragupta II.

✍️ Udaigiri cave inscriptions — This is the first inscription of Udaigiri. It was discovered by Cunningham.

✍️ Sanchi Inscription — It belongs to Amrakardhava, the commander of Chandragupta II, who was a Buddhist and was the son of Undan, a resident of the Sukuli region.

✍️ Mehrauli Iron Pillar — This inscription was first published by James Prinsep. Presently it is near Qutub Minar in Mehrauli, Delhi.

✍️ Garhwa Inscription — In this, the name of Chandragupta is not given, but his titles have been given as Param Bhagwat and Maharajadhiraj.

Important Events of the National Movement

► 1904 ➖ Indian University Act passed

►1905 ➖ Partition of Bengal

► 1906 ➖ Establishment of Muslim League

► 1907 Surat session, split in Congress

►1909 ➖ Marley-Minto Reforms

►1911 ➖ Delhi Durbar of the British Emperor

►1916 ➖ Creation of Home Rule League

►1916 ➖ Muslim League-Congress Pact (Lucknow Pact)

►1917 ➖ Movement in Champaran by Mahatma Gandhi

►1919 ➖ Rowlatt Act

►1919 ➖ Jallianwala Bagh massacre

►1919 ➖ Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

►1920 ➖ Khilafat Movement

►1920 ➖ Non-cooperation movement

►1922 ➖ Chauri-Chaura incident

► 1927 ➖ Appointment of Simon Commission

► 1928 ➖ Simon Commission's arrival in India

► 1929 ➖ Bomb blast in Central Assembly by Bhagat Singh

► 1929 ➖ Demand for complete independence by Congress

►1930 ➖ Civil Disobedience Movement

►1930 ➖ First Round Table Conference

►1931 ➖ Second Round Table Conference

►1932 ➖ Third Round Table Conference

► 1932 ➖ Declaration of communal electoral system

►1932 ➖ Poona Pact

►1942 ➖ Quit India Movement

► 1942 ➖ Arrival of Cripps Mission

► 1943 ➖ Establishment of Azad Hind Fauj

►1946 ➖ Arrival of Cabinet Mission

► 1946 ➖ Election of Indian Constituent Assembly

► 1946 ➖ Establishment of interim government

► 1947 ➖ Mountbatten plan of partition of India

► 1947 ➖ Important events of Indian independence movement

► 1904 ➖ Indian University Act passed

►1905 ➖ Partition of Bengal

► 1906 ➖ Establishment of Muslim League

► 1907 Surat session, split in Congress

►1909 ➖ Marley-Minto Reforms

►1911 ➖ Delhi Durbar of the British Emperor

►1916 ➖ Creation of Home Rule League

►1916 ➖ Muslim League-Congress Pact (Lucknow Pact)

►1917 ➖ Movement in Champaran by Mahatma Gandhi

►1919 ➖ Rowlatt Act

►1919 ➖ Jallianwala Bagh massacre

►1919 ➖ Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

►1920 ➖ Khilafat Movement

►1920 ➖ Non-cooperation movement

►1922 ➖ Chauri-Chaura incident

► 1927 ➖ Appointment of Simon Commission

► 1928 ➖ Simon Commission's arrival in India

► 1929 ➖ Bomb blast in Central Assembly by Bhagat Singh

► 1929 ➖ Demand for complete independence by Congress

►1930 ➖ Civil Disobedience Movement

►1930 ➖ First Round Table Conference

►1931 ➖ Second Round Table Conference

►1932 ➖ Third Round Table Conference

► 1932 ➖ Declaration of communal electoral system

►1932 ➖ Poona Pact

►1942 ➖ Quit India Movement

► 1942 ➖ Arrival of Cripps Mission

► 1943 ➖ Establishment of Azad Hind Fauj

►1946 ➖ Arrival of Cabinet Mission

► 1946 ➖ Election of Indian Constituent Assembly

► 1946 ➖ Establishment of interim government

► 1947 ➖ Mountbatten plan of partition of India

► 1947 ➖ Indian Independence

Some Important Words from Ancient History

▪️Jana - Tribe

▪️Vish - People/Clan

▪️Gana - Lineage

▪️Grama - Village

▪️Gavishti/Gavya - War for cattle

▪️Janasya Gopa - Tribal Chief

▪️Godhuli - Dusk

▪️Samgava - Morning

▪️Gavala - Buffalo

▪️Duhitri - Daughter(she who milks cows)

▪️Gomat - Wealthy person (Owner of cattle)

▪️Gojit - Hero (winner of Cows)

▪️Yava - Barley/generic term for cereals.

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