Human Physiology and Anatomy Notes

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✅Notes on s-Block Elements: Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda) (Na2CO3):

a) Preparation:

Solvay process:

Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a brine solution saturated with ammonia and itresults in the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate.

NH3 + H2O + CO2 → NH4HCO3

NaCI + NH4HCO3 → NaHCO3 + NH4CI

Sodium hydrogen carbonate so formed precipitates out because of the common ion effect caused due to the presence of excess of NaCl. The precipitated NaHCO3 is filtered off and then ignited to get Na2CO3.
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

b) Properties

1. The aqueous solution absorbs CO2 yielding sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate.

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO­3
2. dissolves in acids with an effervescence of carbondioxide and is causticised by lime to give caustic soda.

Na2CO3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2NaOH + CaCO3

3. Fusion with silica, sodium carbonate yields sodium silicate.

Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO­2
4. Hydrolysis – being a salt of a strong base (NaOH) and weak acid (H2CO3), when dissolved in water sodium carbonate. Undergoes hydrolysis to form an alkaline solution

Na2CO3 + 2H2O→ H2CO3 + 2NaOH
c) Uses

It is used for softening hard water.

A mixture of sodium carbonate & potassium carbonate is used as fusion mixture.

As an important laboratory reagent both in qualitative and quantitative analysis.

It is used in paper, paints and textile industries.

It is used for washing purposes in laundry.

It is used in the manufacture of glass, borax, soap and caustic soda.

Alkali Earth Metals (Group II elements of modern periodic table):
Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and Radium (Ra).

Physical Properties of Alkali Earth Metals:
1. Alkali earth metals are almost similar in properties to the corresponding alkali metals.

Higher melting points than alkali metals

Higher boiling points alkali metals

Higher densities alkali metals

Harder than the corresponding alkali metals

2. Atomic and ionic radii

The atomic radii as well as ionic radii of the members of the family are smaller than the corresponding members of alkali metals.

3. Ionization energy: The alkaline earth metals owing to their large size of atoms have fairly low values of ionization energies as compared to the p – block elements. However with in the group, the ionization energy decreases as the atomic number increases. It is because of increase in atomic size due to addition of new shells and increase in the magnitude of screening effect of the electrons in inner shells. Because their (IE)1 is larger than that of their alkali metal neighbours, the group IIA metals trend to the some what less reactive than alkali metals. The general reactivity trend is Ba > Sr > Ca > Mg > Be.

4. Oxidation state: The alkaline earth metal have two electrons in their valence shell and by losing these electrons, these atoms acquire the stable noble gas configuration. Thus, unlike alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals exhibit +2 oxidation state in their compounds.

❇️ Human Genetic Disorders

➡️Trick ➨ Alka sick thi Phenyl Pine Ce

⇒Alka – Alkaptonuria
⇒sick – Sickle Cell anaemia
⇒Thi – Thalassemia
⇒Phenyl – Phenylketonuria
⇒Ce – Cystic fibrosis

❇️ Parkinson’s disease signs and symptoms

➡️Trick ➨ SMART

⇒Shuffling gait
⇒Mask-like facies
⇒Akinesia
⇒Rigidity
⇒Tremor

❇️ Hormone Produced by Anterior Pituitary

➡️Trick ➨ Green Parrot Tickles And Make Fake Look

⇒Green – GH
⇒Parrot – Prolactin
⇒Tickles – TSH
⇒And – ACTH
⇒Make – MSH
⇒Fake  – FSH
⇒Look – LH

✅Notes on s-Block Elements: Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda) (Na2CO3):

a) Preparation:

Solvay process:

Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through a brine solution saturated with ammonia and itresults in the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate.

NH3 + H2O + CO2 → NH4HCO3

NaCI + NH4HCO3 → NaHCO3 + NH4CI

Sodium hydrogen carbonate so formed precipitates out because of the common ion effect caused due to the presence of excess of NaCl. The precipitated NaHCO3 is filtered off and then ignited to get Na2CO3.
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

b) Properties

1. The aqueous solution absorbs CO2 yielding sparingly soluble sodium bicarbonate.

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NaHCO­3
2. dissolves in acids with an effervescence of carbondioxide and is causticised by lime to give caustic soda.

Na2CO3 + 2HCl →2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 → 2NaOH + CaCO3

3. Fusion with silica, sodium carbonate yields sodium silicate.

Na2CO3 + SiO2 → Na2SiO3 + CO­2
4. Hydrolysis – being a salt of a strong base (NaOH) and weak acid (H2CO3), when dissolved in water sodium carbonate. Undergoes hydrolysis to form an alkaline solution

Na2CO3 + 2H2O→ H2CO3 + 2NaOH
c) Uses

It is used for softening hard water.

A mixture of sodium carbonate & potassium carbonate is used as fusion mixture.

As an important laboratory reagent both in qualitative and quantitative analysis.

It is used in paper, paints and textile industries.

It is used for washing purposes in laundry.

It is used in the manufacture of glass, borax, soap and caustic soda.

Alkali Earth Metals (Group II elements of modern periodic table):
Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and Radium (Ra).

Physical Properties of Alkali Earth Metals:
1. Alkali earth metals are almost similar in properties to the corresponding alkali metals.

Higher melting points than alkali metals

Higher boiling points alkali metals

Higher densities alkali metals

Harder than the corresponding alkali metals

2. Atomic and ionic radii

The atomic radii as well as ionic radii of the members of the family are smaller than the corresponding members of alkali metals.

3. Ionization energy: The alkaline earth metals owing to their large size of atoms have fairly low values of ionization energies as compared to the p – block elements. However with in the group, the ionization energy decreases as the atomic number increases. It is because of increase in atomic size due to addition of new shells and increase in the magnitude of screening effect of the electrons in inner shells. Because their (IE)1 is larger than that of their alkali metal neighbours, the group IIA metals trend to the some what less reactive than alkali metals. The general reactivity trend is Ba > Sr > Ca > Mg > Be.

4. Oxidation state: The alkaline earth metal have two electrons in their valence shell and by losing these electrons, these atoms acquire the stable noble gas configuration. Thus, unlike alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals exhibit +2 oxidation state in their compounds.

❇️ Human Genetic Disorders

➡️Trick ➨ Alka sick thi Phenyl Pine Ce

⇒Alka – Alkaptonuria
⇒sick – Sickle Cell anaemia
⇒Thi – Thalassemia
⇒Phenyl – Phenylketonuria
⇒Ce – Cystic fibrosis

❇️ Parkinson’s disease signs and symptoms

➡️Trick ➨ SMART

⇒Shuffling gait
⇒Mask-like facies
⇒Akinesia
⇒Rigidity
⇒Tremor

❇️ Human Genetic Disorders

➡️Trick ➨ Alka sick thi Phenyl Pine Ce

⇒Alka – Alkaptonuria
⇒sick – Sickle Cell anaemia
⇒Thi – Thalassemia
⇒Phenyl – Phenylketonuria
⇒Ce – Cystic fibrosis

❇️ Parkinson’s disease signs and symptoms

➡️Trick ➨ SMART

⇒Shuffling gait
⇒Mask-like facies
⇒Akinesia
⇒Rigidity
⇒Tremor

❇️ Hormone Produced by Anterior Pituitary

➡️Trick ➨ Green Parrot Tickles And Make Fake Look

⇒Green – GH
⇒Parrot – Prolactin
⇒Tickles – TSH
⇒And – ACTH
⇒Make – MSH
⇒Fake  – FSH
⇒Look – LH

🫁𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐬 the 𝐟𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐩𝐬 :-

🧘‍♀️(i) 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 or 𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 by which atmospheric air is drawn in and 𝐂𝐎𝟐 rich alveolar air is 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐮𝐭.

🧘‍♀️(ii) 𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 of 𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 (O2 and CO2) across 𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐞.

🧘‍♀️(iii) 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭 of 𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 by blood.

🧘‍♀️(iv) 𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 of O2 and CO2
between 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐝 and 𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐞𝐬.

🧘‍♂️(v) 𝐔𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 of O2 by the cells for 𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 reactions and resultant release of 𝐂𝐎𝟐.

🚴 In 𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐞 following conditions are favourable for 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 of 𝐨𝐱𝐲𝐠𝐞𝐧 from 𝐨𝐱𝐲𝐡𝐚𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐧 :-

👉🏻(i) 𝐋𝐨𝐰 PO2

👉🏻(ii) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡 PCO2

👉🏻(iii) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡 H+
concentration

👉🏻(iv) 𝐋𝐨𝐰 pH

👉🏻(v) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

🫁𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐢𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐬 the 𝐟𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐩𝐬 :-

🧘‍♀️(i) 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐧𝐠 or 𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 by which atmospheric air is drawn in and 𝐂𝐎𝟐 rich alveolar air is 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐮𝐭.

🧘‍♀️(ii) 𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 of 𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 (O2 and CO2) across 𝐚𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐞𝐦𝐛𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐞.

🧘‍♀️(iii) 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐫𝐭 of 𝐠𝐚𝐬𝐞𝐬 by blood.

🧘‍♀️(iv) 𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 of O2 and CO2
between 𝐛𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐝 and 𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐞𝐬.

🧘‍♂️(v) 𝐔𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 of O2 by the cells for 𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 reactions and resultant release of 𝐂𝐎𝟐.

🚴 In 𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐞 following conditions are favourable for 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 of 𝐨𝐱𝐲𝐠𝐞𝐧 from 𝐨𝐱𝐲𝐡𝐚𝐞𝐦𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐧 :-

👉🏻(i) 𝐋𝐨𝐰 PO2

👉🏻(ii) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡 PCO2

👉🏻(iii) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡 H+
concentration

👉🏻(iv) 𝐋𝐨𝐰 pH

👉🏻(v) 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

(2) It is individual specific DNA identification which is made possible by the finding that no two people are likely to have the same number of copies of repetitive DNA sequences of the regions.

(3) It is also known as DNA profiling.

(4) The chromosomes of every human cell contain scattered through their DNA short, highly repeated 15 nucleotide segments called “mini-satellites” or variable-number Tandem Repeat (VNTR).

Technique for DNA fingerprinting
(1) Only a small amount of tissues like blood or semen or skin cells or the hair root follicle is needed for DNA fingerprinting.

(2) Typically DNA content of about 100,000 cells or about 1 microgram is sufficient.

(3) The procedure of DNA fingerprinting involves the following major steps:

(i) DNA is isolated from the cells in a high-speed refrigerated centrifuge.

(ii) If the sample of DNA is very small, DNA can be amplified by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).

(iii) DNA is then cut up into fragments of different length using restriction enzymes.

(iv) The fragments are separated according to size using gel electrophoresis through an agarose gel. The smaller fragments move faster down the gel than the larger ones.

(v) Double stranded DNA is then split into single stranded DNA using alkaline chemicals.

(vi) These separated DNA sequences are transferred to a nylon or nitrocellulose sheet placed over the gel. This is called ‘Southern Blotting’ (after Edward Southern, who first developed this method in 1975).

(vii) The nylon sheet is then immersed in a bath and probes or makers that are radioactive synthetic DNA segments of known sequences are added. The probes target a specific nucleotide sequence which is complementary to VNTR sequences and hybridizes them.

(viii) Finally, X-ray film is exposed to the nylon sheet containing radioactive probes. Dark bands develop at the probe sites which resemble the bar codes used by grocery store scanners to identify items.

Applications of DNA fingerprinting
This technique is now used to:

(i) Identify criminals in forensic laboratories.

(ii) Settle paternity disputes.

(iii) Verify whether a hopeful immigrant is, as he or she claims, really a close relative of already an established resident.

(iv) Identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

(5) 61 out of 64 codons code for only 20 amino acids.

🔅Revision Notes on Molecular Basis of Inheritance🔅(2/3)
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(6) The main problem of genetic code was to determine the exact number of nucleotide in a codon which codes for one amino acid.

Characteristics of genetic code
(1) Triplet in nature

(a) A codon is composed of three adjacent nitrogen bases which specify one amino acid in polypeptide chain.

(b) For example- In m-RNA if there are total 90 N2 – bases. Then this m-RNA determines 30 amino acids in polypeptide chain.

(2) Univerality

(a) The genetic code is applicable universally.

(b) The same genetic code is present in all kinds of living organism including viruses, bacteria, unicellular and multicellular organisms. In all these organisms, triplet code for specific amino acid.

(3) Non-ambiguous

(a) Genetic code is non ambiguous i.e. one codon specifies only one amino acid and not any other.

(b) In this case one codon never code two different amino acids. Exception GUG codon which code both valine and methionine amino acid.

(4) Non-overlapping

(a) A nitrogen base is a constituent of only one codon.

(5) Comma less

(a) There is no punctuation (comma) between the adjacent codon i.e. each codon is immediately followed by the next codon.

(b) If a nucleotide is deleted or added, the whole genetic code read differently.

(c) A polynucleotide chain having 50 amino acids shall be specialized by a linear sequence of 150 nucleotides. If a nucleotide is added in the middle of this sequence, the first 25 amino acids of polypeptide will be same but next 25 amino acids will be different.

(6)  Degeneracy of genetic code

(a) Only two amino acids – tryptophan and methionine are specified by single codon.

UGG for tryptophan

AUG for methionine

(b) All the other amino acids are specified or coded by 2 to 6 codons.

(c) Leucine, serine and arginine are coded or specified by 6-codons.

(d) Degeneracy of genetic code is related to third position (3’-end of triplet codon) of codon. The third base is described as ‘Wobble base’.

Genomics and Human Genome project:
(1) The term genome has been introduced by Winkler in 1920 and the genomics is relatively new, coined by Thomas Rodericks in 1986.

(2) Genomics is the subdiscipline of genetics devoted to the mapping, sequencing and functional analysis of genomes. Genomics is subdivided into following types:

(a) Structural genomics: It is the study of genome structure deals with the complete nucleotide sequences of the organisms.

(b) Functional genomics: It is the study of genome function which includes transcriptome and proteome. Transcriptome is a complete set of RNAs transcribed from a genome while proteome is a complete set of proteins encoded by a genome and aims the determination of the structure and function of all the proteins in living organisms.

(3) The human genome project, sometimes called “biology’s moon shot”, was launched on october 1, 1990 for sequencing the entire human genome of 2.75 billion (2.75 ´ 109 or 2750000 bp or 2750000 kilobase pairs or 2750 megabase pairs) nucleotide pairs.

(4) Two important scientist associated with human genome are Francis Collins, director of the Human Genome Project and J. Craig Venter, founding president of Celera genomics.

(5) The complete sequencing of the first human chromosome, small chromosome 22, was published in December 1999.

🔅Revision Notes on Molecular Basis of Inheritance🔅(3/3)
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Prospects and implications of human genome:
(1) The genome project is being compared to the discovery of antibiotics.

(2) Efforts are in progress to determine genes that will revert cancerous cells to normal.

(3) The human genome sequencing not only holds promise for a healthier living. It also holds the prospects of vast database of knowledge about designer drugs, genetically modified diets and finally our genetic identity.

DNA finger printing
(1) Alec Jeffreys et al (1985) developed the procedure of genetic analysis and forensic medicine, called DNA finger printing.

NEET MBBS Notes Study PG UG PDF:
🔅Revision Notes on Molecular Basis of Inheritance🔅(1/3)
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DNA
(1) DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
(2) The length of the DNA depends on the number of nucleotide pairs present in it.
(3) Bacteriophage lambda has 48,502 base pairs.

Central dogma of molecular biology
(1) Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology
(2) It states that the genetic information flows from DNA à RNA à Protein.
(3) In some viruses like retroviruses, the flow of information is in reverse direction, which is from RNA à DNA à mRNA à Protein.

Structure of polynucleotide chain:

(1) A nucleotide has three components-

(a) A nitrogen base
(b) A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA)
(c) A phosphoric acid.

(2) There are two types of nitrogen bases:

(a) Purines (Adenine and Guanine)

(b) Pyrimidines (Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine)

(3) Adenine, Guanine and Cytosine are common in RNA and DNA.

(4) Uracil is present in RNA and in DNA in place of Uracil, Thymine is present.

(5) In RNA, Pentose sugar is ribose and in DNA, it is Deoxyribose.

(6) Based on the nature of pentose sugar, two types of nucleosides are formed - ribonucleoside and deoxyribonucleotides.

(7) Two nucleotides are joined by 3’-5’ Phosphodiester linkage to form dinucleotide.

(8) More than two nucleotides join to form polynucleotide chain.

(9) The two strands of DNA  (called DNA duplex) are antiparallel and complementary, i.i., one in 5’->3’ direction and the other in 3”->5” direction.

History of DNA

(1) DNA is an acidic substance in the nucleus.

(2) It was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He named it as ‘Nuclein”

(3) In 1953 double helix structure of DNA was given by James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray diffraction data produced Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.

Packaging of DNA Helix

(1) The basic unit into which DNA is packed in the chromatin of eukaryotes.

(2) Nucleosome is the basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin, which contains nine histone proteins.

(3) Distance between two conjugative base pairs is 0.34nm

(4) The length of the DNA in a typical mammalian cell will be 6.6 X109 bp X 0.34 X10-9 /bp, it comes about 2.2 meters.

(5) The length of DNA is more than the dimension of a typical nucleus (10-6m)

DNA Replication

(1) DNA is the only molecule capable of self duplication so it is termed as a living molecule.

(2) All living beings have the capacity to reproduce because of DNA.

(3) DNA replication takes place in S-phase of the cell cycle. At the time of cell division, it divides in equal parts in the daughter cells.

(4) Delbruck suggested three methods of DNA replication i.e.

(i) Dispersive

(ii) Conservative

(iii) Semi-conservative

(5) The process of DNA replication takes a few minutes in prokaryotes and a few hours in eukaryotes.


RNA

(1) RNA is the first genetic material.

(2) RNA is a non hereditary nucleic acid except in some viruses (retroviruses).

(3) RNA used to act as a genetic material as well as catalyst.

(4) It is a polymer of ribonucleotide and is made up of pentose ribose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogenous base (A,U,G,C).

(5) RNA may be of two types – genetic and non-genetic.

Genetic Code
(1) Term genetic code was given by George Gamow (1954). He was the first to propose the triplet code (one codon consists of three nitrogen bases).

(2) The relationship between the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain and nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA is called genetic code.

(3) There occur 20 types of amino acids which participate in protein synthesis. DNA contains information for the synthesis of any types of polypeptide chain. In the process of transcription, information transfers from DNA to m-RNA in the form of complementary N2-base sequence.

(4) A codon is the nucleotide sequence in m-RNA which codes for particular amino acid; whereas the genetic code is the sequence of nucleotides in m-RNA molecule, which contains information for the synthesis of polypeptide chain.

Approximate percentage of elements in Human body

• Oxygen - 65%
• Carbon - 18%
• Hydrogen - 10%
• Nitrogen - 3%
• Calcium - 2%
• Phosphorous - 1%
• Potassium - 0.35%
• Sodium - 0.15%
• Chloride - 0.15%
• Magnesium - 0.05%
• Iron - 0.0004%

🇮🇳भारतीय लोकतंत्र के महापर्व 75वें गणतंत्र दिवस की आप सभी को हार्दिक शुभकामनाएं। 🇮🇳

🙏जय हिन्द ❤️🫡🫡🇮🇳🇮🇳